Nkwammoaa (abɔdeɛ a nkwa wɔm ho adesua) (Living Cells)

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Nkwammoaa no ne abɔdeɛ ahodoɔ nyinaa nhyehyɛeɛ ne dwumadie titiri. Nkwammoaa biara yɛ "cytoplasm" a ɛwɔ "membrane" bi mu, na ɛwɔ macromolecules a ɛwɔ nnipadua no mu pii te sɛ "protein", DNA ne RNA, ne "molecule" nketewa pii a ɛyɛ nnuannuru a ɛma ahoɔden ne nnoɔma a ɛkeka bom ma nnipa yɛ adwuma (metabolites).[1] Asɛmfua no firi Latin asɛmfua cellula a ɛkyerɛ ‘dan ketewa’ mu.[2]

Nkwammoaa no tumi nya dwumadie pɔtee bi na wɔyɛ nnwuma ahodoɔ wɔ nkwammoaa no mu te sɛ deɛ wɔreyɛ no foforɔ, DNA a wɔsiesie, protein a wɔyɛ, ne sɛdeɛ wɔkanyan wɔn ho. Nkwammoaa tumi yɛ soronko na wɔtumi tu wɔ nkwammoaa no mu.

Afifideɛ ne mmoa nkwammoaa dodoɔ no ara yɛ deɛ wɔtumi hu wɔ hann afidie a wɔde hwɛ nnoɔma nketenkete mu nkutoo, na ne kɛseɛ yɛ micrometres baako kɔsi ɔha.[3] Electron microscopy ma wonya nsusuiiɛ a ɛkorɔn kɛseɛ a ɛkyerɛ nkwammoaa nhyehyɛeɛ a ɛkɔ akyiri kɛseɛ. Wɔbɛtumi akyekyɛ abɔdeɛ a nkwa wom mu sɛ nkwammoaa baako (a ɛyɛ nkwammoaa baako te sɛ mmoawa) anaasɛ nkwammoaa pii (a afifideɛ ne mmoa ka ho). Wɔkyekyɛ abɔdeɛ a nkwa wom a wɔwɔ nkwammoaa baako mu dodoɔ no ara mu sɛ mmoawa nketenkete. Nkwammoaa dodoɔ a ɛwɔ afifideɛ ne mmoa mu no gu ahodoɔ wɔ mmoa ahodoɔ mu; wɔabu akontaa sɛ nkwammoaa bɛyɛ ɔpepepem aduasa nson (37) (3.72×1013) na ɛwɔ onipa nipadua mu. Onipa adwene na ɛyɛ saa nkwammoaa yi bɛyɛ ɔpepepem aduonwɔtwe.

Nkwammoaa ne sɛdeɛ ɛyɛ adwuma ho nhwehwɛmu ama wɔayɛ nhwehwɛmu afoforɔ pii wɔ abɔdeɛ a nkwa wɔm ho nnoɔma a ɛfa ho mu, a deɛ ɛka ho ne: DNA a wɔahunu, kokoram nhyehyɛeɛ abɔdeɛ a nkwa wɔm ho adesua, onyini ne nkɔsoɔ ho adesua.

Nkwammoaa mu abɔdeɛ a nkwa wɔm ho adesua yɛ nkwammoaa ho adesua a, Robert Hooke na huiɛ wɔ afe dunsia aduosia nnum(1665) mu, na ɔtoo din esiane sɛdeɛ ɛte sɛ nkwammoaa a Kristofoɔ nkɔkorafoɔ te nkɔkorafie bi mu nti.[4][5] Nkwammoaa ho nkyerɛkyerɛ a Matthias Jakob Schleiden ne Theodor Schwann dii kan yɔeɛ wɔ afe du-nnwɔtwe ne aduasa nkron (1839) mu no ka sɛ abɔdeɛ a nkwa wɔ mu nyinaa yɛ nkwammoaa baako anaa deɛ ɛboro saa, na saa nkwammoaa ne ade titiri a ɛma abɔdeɛ a nkwa wɔ mu nyinaa yɛ nhyehyɛeɛ ne dwumadie, na ɛmu na nkwammoaa nyinaa firi. nkwammoaa a ɛwɔ hɔ deda.[6] Nkwammoaa puee wɔ Asase so bɛyɛ mfeɛ ɔpepepem nnan a atwam ni.[7][8][9][10]

Deɛ wɔhunuu yɛ[sesa]

Berɛ a wɔkɔɔ so nyaa nkɔsoɔ wɔ afidie a wɔde hwɛ nnoɔma nketenkete mu no, mfidinnwuma a ɛma nnoɔma yɛ kɛse no nyaa nkɔanim araa ma wohuu nkwammoaa. Wɔkyerɛ sɛ Robert Hooke na ohunu no kɛse, na ɔfiri nyansahunu mu nhwehwɛmu a wɔyɔeɛ wɔ nkwammoaa ho, a wɔfrɛ no nkwammoaa mu abɔdeɛ a nkwa wɔ mu ho adesua ase. Berɛ a ɔhwɛɛ asinasini bi wɔ scope no ase no, ɔtumi hunu ntini ahodoɔ. Wei yɛɛ ahodwiri saa berɛ no efiri sɛ na wɔgye di sɛ obi foforo biara nhunu weinom. Deɛ ɛbɛyɛ na wɔafoa ne nsusuiiɛ no so bio no, Matthias Schleiden ne Theodor Schwann nyinaa nso suaa mmoa ne afifideɛ nyinaa nkwammoaa ho adeɛ. Deɛ wohunuiɛ ne nsonsonoeɛ titiri a ɛda nkwammoaa ahodoɔ mmienu no ntam. Wei de adwene a ɛne sɛ ɛnyɛ afifideɛ nko na nkwammoaa nko ara nyɛ ade titiri, na mmom mmoa nso.

Nkwammoa ahodoɔ[sesa]

Wɔakyekyɛ nkwammoaa mu akuoakuo mmienu: eukaryotic nkwammoaa, a ɛwɔ nuklea, ne prokaryotic nkwammoaa, a enni nuklea nanso ɛda so ara wɔ nucleoid mpɔtam. Prokaryotes yɛ mmoawa a wɔwɔ nkwammoaa baako, berɛ a eukaryotes bɛtumi ayɛ nkwammoaa baako anaa nkwammoaa pii.[11]

Nkwammoaa a ɛyɛ prokaryotic[sesa]

Prokaryotic nkwammoaa a wɔtaa de di dwuma no nhyehyɛe

Prokaryotes mmoawa no bi ne archaea,a ɛyɛ nkwa afa mmiɛsa no mu mmienu. Na prokaryotic nkwammoaa no ne nkwa a edi kan wɔ Asase so, a deɛ ɛda nson ne sɛ na ɛwɔ abɔdeɛ mu nnoɔma a ɛho hia a nkwammoaa mu nsɛnkyerɛnne ka ho. Wɔyɛ mmerɛ na wɔyɛ nketewa sene eukaryotic nkwammoaa, na wonni nuklea, ne akwaa afoforɔ a ɛkyekyere ntini. Prokaryotic nkwammoaa DNA yɛ chromosome baako a ɛyɛ kurukuruwa a ɛne cytoplasm no di nkitaho tee. Wɔfrɛ nuklea beaɛ a ɛwɔ cytoplasm no mu no nucleoid. Prokaryote dodoɔ no ara yɛ abɔdeɛ a nkwa wɔm nyinaa mu ketewaa bi a ne kɛse firi 0.5 kɔsi 2.0 μm.[12]

Prokaryotic nkwammoaa wɔ mmeaɛ mmiɛnsa:

  • Deɛ ɛka nkwammoaa no ho ne nkwammoaa no nkatasoɔ, a mpɛn pii no ɛyɛ plasma ntini a nkwammoaa fasuo akata so a ɛwɔ mmoawa binom fam no, ebia wɔde adeɛ a ɛtɔ so mmiɛnsa a wɔfrɛ no capsule akata so bio. Ɛwom sɛ prokaryote dodoɔ no ara wɔ nkwammoaa mu ntini ne nkwammoaa fasu nyinaa deɛ, nanso nnoɔma bi wɔ hɔ a ɛne no nni nsɛ te sɛ Mycoplasma (mmoawa) ne Thermoplasma (archaea) a ɛwɔ nkwammoaa mu ntini no fa nkutoo. Envelope no ma nkwammoaa no yɛ katee na ɛtete nkwammoaa no mu firi deɛ atwa ho ahyia no ho, na ɛyɛ adwuma sɛ ade a ɛbɔ ho ban. Nkwammoaa fasu no yɛ peptidoglycan a ɛwɔ mmoawa mu na ɛyɛ adwuma sɛ akwansideɛ foforɔ a ɛko tia tumi ahodoɔ a ɛwɔ akyire. Ɛsane nso mma nkwammoaa no ntrɛ anaa sɛ ɛbɛpae (cytolysis) esiane osmotic nhyɛsoɔ a hypotonic tebea wɔ mu nti. Eukaryotic nkwammoaa bi (afifideɛ nkwammoaa ne fungal nkwammoaa) nso wɔ nkwammoaa fasuo.[13]
  • Nkwammoaa no mu no, cytoplasmic region a genome (DNA), ribosomes ne nnoɔma ahodoɔ a ɛka ho wɔm no wɔ. Wohunu awosuo mu nnoɔma no wɔ cytoplasm no mu kwa. Prokaryotes tumi kura DNA mu nnoɔma a ɛwɔ nipadua no akyire a wɔfrɛ no plasmids, a mpɛn pii no ɛyɛ kurukuruwa. Wɔahunu linear bacterial plasmids wɔ spirochete mmoawa ahodoɔ pii mu, a Borrelia abusua no mufoɔ titiri Borrelia burgdorferi a ɛde Lyme yareɛ no ba no ka ho.[14] Ɛwɔm sɛ ɛnyɛ nuklea de, nanso DNA no yɛ den wɔ nucleoid mu. Plasmid ahodoɔ kyerɛ awosu mu nkwaadɔm afoforɔ te sɛ awosuo mu nkwaadɔm a ɛko tia nnuru a ekum yareɛ mmoawa.
  • Wɔ abɔnten no, flagella ne pili firi nkwammoaa no ani firi adi. Weinom yɛ nhyehyɛeɛ ahodoɔ (a enni prokaryote nyinaa mu) a wɔde protein ahodoɔ ayɛ a ɛma nkwammoaa ntam tu ne nkitahodie yɛ mmerɛ.

Mmoawa nsusuiiɛ ahodoɔ[sesa]

Asɛm titiri: Mmoawa § Nsɛsoɔ

Wɔasusu sɛ nkwammoaa nsusuiiɛ a wɔsan frɛ no nkwammoaa nsɛsoɔ no firi nhyehyɛeɛ ne sɛdeɛ cytoskeleton no kenyan no mu na ɛba.[15] Nkɔsoɔ pii a aba wɔ nkwammoaa nsɛsoɔ ho adesua mu firi mmoawa a ɛnyɛ den te sɛ Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, ne B. subtilis a wɔsua.[16] Wɔahunu nkwammoaa ahodoɔ ahodoɔ na wɔaka ho asɛm, nanso ɔkwan a wɔfa so yɛ ne deɛ enti a nkwammoaa yɛ nsusuiiɛ ahodoɔ no, wɔda so ara nnim kɛse.[16] Nkwammoaa ahodoɔ bi a wɔahunu ne abaa, cocci ne spirochaetes. Cocci wɔ kurukuruwa, bacilli wɔ te sɛ abaa tenten, ɛnna spirochaetes wɔ nsɛsoɔ a ɛyɛ kurukuruwa. Wɔakyerɛ nsusuiiɛ afoforɔ pii nso.

Nkwammoaa a ɛyɛ eukaryotic[sesa]

Asɛm titiri: Eukaryote

Afifideɛ, mmoa, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, ne algae nyinaa yɛ eukaryotic. Saa nkwammoaa yi trɛ bɛyɛ mpɛn dunum sene prokaryote a wɔtaa de di dwuma no na ɛbɛtumi ayɛ kɛse mpɛn apem wɔ ne kɛseɛ mu. Ade titiri a ɛma eukaryotes da nson berɛ a wɔde toto prokaryotes ho ne compartmentalization: organelles a ɛkyekyere membrane (compartments) a dwumadie pɔtee bi kɔ so wɔ hɔ. Weinom mu deɛ ɛho hia pa ara ne nkwammoaa mu nucleus, akwaa bi a ɛwɔ nkwammoaa no DNA. Saa nuklea yi ma eukaryote no din, a ɛkyerɛ "nokware kernel (nucleus)". Nsonsonoeɛ afoforɔ no bi ne:

  • Plasma membrane no te sɛ prokaryotes wɔ dwumadie mu, na nsonsonoeɛ nketenkete wɔ sɛdeɛ wɔahyehyɛ no mu. Ebiara nkwammoaa fasuo wɔ hɔ anaasɛ enni hɔ.
  • Wɔahyehyɛ eukaryotic DNA no wɔ molecule baako anaa deɛ ɛboro saa a ɛyɛ linear mu, a wɔfrɛ no chromosomes, a ɛne histone protein ahodoɔ wɔ abusuabɔ. Wɔkora chromosomal DNA nyinaa so wɔ nkwammoaa nucleus no mu, na ɛnam membrane bi so na ɛtete firi cytoplasm no ho.[13] Eukaryotic akwaa bi te sɛ mitochondria nso wɔ DNA no bi.
  • Wɔde eukaryotic nkwammoaa pii ayɛ cilia ne cilia titiri. Cilia titiri di dwuma titiri wɔ chemosensation, mechanosensation, ne thermosensation mu. Enti wɔbɛtumi "abu cilium biara sɛ nkate mu nkwammoaa antennae a ɛyɛ nkwammoaa mu nsɛnkyerɛnne akwan dodoɔ bi bɔm, ɛtɔ mmere bi a ɛde nsɛnkyerɛnne no bata ciliary motility ho anaasɛ ɔkwan foforɔ so no ɛka nkwammoaa mu mpaepaemu ne nsonsonoeɛ ho.[17]
  • Eukaryote a ɛtumi keka ne ho tumi de cilia anaa flagella a ɛtumi keka ne ho di dwuma. Nkwammoaa a ɛtumi tu nni conifers ne nhwiren afifideɛ mu.[20] Eukaryotic flagella yɛ deɛ ɛyɛ den sene prokaryotes deɛ.[18]
Prokaryotic ne eukaryotic nkwammoaa no su ahodoɔ a wɔde toto ho
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Typical organisms bacteria, archaea protists, fungi, plants, animals
Typical size ~ 1–5 μm ~ 10–100 μm
Type of nucleus nucleoid region; no true nucleus true nucleus with double membrane
DNA circular (usually) linear molecules (chromosomes) with histone proteins
RNA/protein synthesis coupled in the cytoplasm RNA synthesis in the nucleus

protein synthesis in the cytoplasm

Ribosomes 50S and 30S 60S and 40S
Cytoplasmic structure very few structures highly structured by endomembranes and a cytoskeleton
Cell movement flagella made of flagellin flagella and cilia containing microtubules; lamellipodia and filopodia containing actin
Mitochondria none one to several thousand
Chloroplasts none in algae and plants
Organization usually single cells single cells, colonies, higher multicellular organisms with specialized cells
Cell division binary fission (simple division) mitosis (fission or budding)

meiosis

Chromosomes single chromosome more than one chromosome
Membranes cell membrane

Nneɛma a ɛwɔ nkwammoaa ase[sesa]

Nkwammoaa nyinaa, sɛ ɛyɛ prokaryotic anaa eukaryotic no, wɔ ntini bi a ɛkata nkwammoaa no so, ɛhwɛ deɛ ɛkɔ mu ne deɛ ɛkɔ mu so (wɔpa deɛ ɛma nsuo fa mu), na ɛma anyinam ahoɔden a nkwammoaa no wɔ no kɔ so tena hɔ. Wɔ ntini no mu no, cytoplasm no gye nkwammoaa no mu dodoɔ no ara. Gye mogya mu nkwammoaa kɔkɔɔ a enni nkwammoaa mu nucleus ne akwaa dodoɔ no ara a ɛbɛma hemoglobin anya baabi a ɛsene no, nkwammoaa nyinaa wɔ DNA, awosu mu nnoɔma a efiri awosuo mu, ne RNA, a nsɛm a ɛho hia na wɔde ayɛ protein ahodoɔ te sɛ enzymes, nkwammoaa no nso kyerɛkyerɛ wɔn dwumadie wɔm . Biomolecules ahodoɔ afoforo nso wɔ nkwammoaa mu. Asɛm yi bobɔ nkwammoaa mu nnoɔma atitiri yi din, afei ɛka sɛdeɛ wɔyɛ adwuma ho asɛm tiawa.

nkwammoaa mu ntini a ɛwɔ nipadua no mu[sesa]

Nkwammoaa mu ntini, anaa plasma ntini, yɛ abɔdeɛ mu ntini a wɔpa a ɛtumi fa mu[19] a ɛtwa nkwammoaa bi mu nkwammoaa ho hyia. Wɔ mmoa mu no, plasma membrane no ne nkwammoaa no akyi hyeɛ, berɛ a wɔ afifideɛ ne prokaryotes mu no, mpɛn pii no, nkwammoaa fasuo kata so. Saa ntini yi yɛ adwuma de tete nkwammoaa bi mu na ɛbɔ ho ban firi nnoɔma a atwa ho ahyia no ho na wɔde phospholipids a ɛwɔ afa mmienu a ɛyɛ amphiphilic (afa bi a ɛnyɛ nsu na ne fa bi nso pɛ nsu) na ɛyɛ no kɛseɛ. Enti, wɔfrɛ ɔfa no phospholipid bilayer, anaasɛ ɛtɔ mmere bi a nsu a ɛyɛ mosaic membrane. Wɔde macromolecular nhyehyɛeɛ bi a wɔfrɛ no porosome amansan kokoam kwan a ɛwɔ nkwammoaa mu ne protein molecule ahodoɔ a ɛyɛ adwuma sɛ akwan ne pɔmpɛ a ɛde molecule ahodoɔ kɔ nkwammoaa no mu na efiri mu no ahyɛ saa ntini yi mu. Ntini no yɛ deɛ ɛtumi fa mu fa bi, na ɛyɛ abɔdeɛ mu ntini a wɔpa a ɛtumi fa mu, wɔ ɔkwan a ɛne sɛ ɛtumi ma ade bi (molecules anaa ion) fa mu kwa, fa mu kɔduru baabi anaasɛ ɛnfa mu koraa. Nkwammoaa ani ntini nso wɔ protein ahodoɔ a ɛma nkwammoaa tumi hunu abɔnten so nsɛnkyerɛnne molecule ahodoɔ te sɛ hormone ahodoɔ.

cytoskeleton a ɛwɔ nipadua no mu[sesa]

Nkwammoaa mu nnompe no yɛ adwuma de hyehyɛ nkwammoaa no nsusuiiɛ na ɛkɔ so tena hɔ; anchors organelles wɔ baabi a ɛwɔ; ɛboa wɔ endocytosis mu, nnoɔma a nkwammoaa bi gye, ne cytokinesis, mmabaawa nkwammoaa a wɔtete mu berɛ a nkwammoaa mu apaapae akyiri no; na ɛka nkwammoaa no afa ahodoɔ wɔ akwan ahodoɔ a wɔfa so nyini na ɛkɔ baabiara mu. Eukaryotic cytoskeleton no yɛ microtubules, ntam nhama ne microfilaments. Wɔ ntini bi a ɛwɔ ntini mu no, wɔfrɛ nhama a ɛwɔ ntam no sɛ ntini mu ntini. Protein ahodoɔ pii na ɛbata wɔn ho, na emu biara di nkwammoaa bi nhyehyɛeɛ so ɛnam nhama a ɛkyerɛ kwan, ɛka bom, na ɛhyehyɛ no so. Wɔnsuaa prokaryotic cytoskeleton ho ade yiye nanso ɛka ho bi na ɛma nkwammoaa no nsɛsoɔ, polarity ne cytokinesis hwɛ so.[20] Protein a ɛwɔ microfilaments mu no yɛ protein ketewaa bi a ɛwɔ monomeric a wɔfrɛ no actin. Microtubules no fa ketewaa bi yɛ dimeric molecule a wɔfrɛ no tubulin. Mfinimfini nhama yɛ heteropolymers a ne subunits gu ahodoɔ wɔ nkwammoaa ahodoɔ a ɛwɔ ntini ahodoɔ mu no mu. Protein ahodoɔ a ɛwɔ ntam nhama mu no bi ne vimentin, desmin, lamin (lamins A, B ne C), keratin (keratin ahodoɔ pii a ɛyɛ acidic ne basic), ne neurofilament proteins (NF–L, NF–M).

Awosu mu nnoɔma[sesa]

Awosuo mu nnoɔma ahodoɔ mmienu na ɛwɔ hɔ: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) ne ribonucleic acid (RNA). Nkwammoaa de DNA di dwuma de sie wɔn nsɛm berɛ tenten. Wɔde abɔdeɛ mu nsɛm a ɛwɔ abɔdeɛ bi mu no ahyɛ ne DNA ntoatoasoɔ mu.[13] Wɔde RNA di dwuma de fa nsɛm (e.g., mRNA) ne enzymatic dwumadie ahodoɔ (e.g., ribosomal RNA). Wɔde transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules di dwuma de amino acid ahodoɔ ka ho berɛ a wɔrekyerɛ protein ase no.

Wɔahyehyɛ prokaryotic awosuo mu nnoɔma wɔ ɔyare mmoawa chromosome a ɛyɛ kurukuruwa a ɛnyɛ den mu wɔ nucleoid fa a ɛwɔ cytoplasm no mu. Wɔakyekyɛ eukaryotic awosuo mu nnoɔma mu ayɛ no molecule ahodoɔ, linear molecules a wɔfrɛ no chromosomes wɔ nucleus a ɛda nson mu, mpɛn pii no awosuo mu nnoɔma foforɔ ka ho wɔ organelles bi te sɛ mitochondria ne chloroplasts mu (hwɛ endosymbiotic theory).

Onipa nkwammoaa wɔ awosu mu nnoɔma a ɛwɔ nkwammoaa no nucleus (nuklea genome) ne mitochondria (mitochondrial genome) mu. Wɔ nnipa mu no, wɔakyekyɛ nuklea genome no mu ayɛ no DNA molecule ahodoɔ aduanan nsia (46) a ɛyɛ linear a wɔfrɛ no chromosomes,[13] a chromosomes mmienu mmienu a ɛne ne ho di nsɛ aduonu mmienu (22) ne ɔbarima ne ɔbaa nna mu chromosomes mmienu ka ho. Mitochondrial genome yɛ DNA molecule a ɛyɛ kurukuruwa a ɛda nson wɔ nuklea DNA ho. Ɛwom sɛ mitochondrial DNA no sua koraa sɛ wɔde toto nuklea chromosomes ho de, nanso ɛkyerɛ protein du mmiɛnsa (13) a ɛka mitochondrial ahoɔden a wɔyɛ ne tRNA pɔtee bi ho mmara.

Wobɛtumi de amannɔne awosuo mu nnoɔma (a ɛtaa yɛ DNA) nso de afiri a wɔde yɛ ade akɔ nkwammoaa no mu ɛnam adeyɛ bi a wɔfrɛ no transfection so. Wei bɛtumi ayɛ berɛ tiaa mu deɛ, sɛ wɔamfa DNA no anhyɛ nkwammoaa no genome mu a, anaasɛ ɛyɛ deɛ ɛgyina pintinn, sɛ ɛte saa a. Mmoawa bi nso de wɔn awosuo mu nnoɔma hyɛ genome no mu.

Organelles[sesa]

Asɛm titiri: Organelle

Organelles ka nkwammoaa a wɔayɛ no foforo na/anaasɛ wɔayɛ no titiri sɛ wɔbɛyɛ adwuma titiri baako anaa deɛ ɛboro saa, a ɛne onipa nipadua akwaa ahodoɔ di nsɛ (te sɛ koma, ahurututu, ne asaabo, a ɛsono akwaa biara adwuma).[13] Eukaryotic ne prokaryotic nkwammoaa nyinaa wɔ akwaa, nanso mpɛn pii no prokaryotic akwaa no yɛ mmerɛ na ɛnyɛ deɛ ɛkyekyere ntini.

Akwaa ahodoɔ pii na ɛwɔ nkwammoaa bi mu. Ebinom (te sɛ nucleus ne Golgi mfiri) taa yɛ ankonam, berɛ a afoforo (te sɛ mitochondria, chloroplast, peroxisomes ne lysosomes) bɛtumi ayɛ pii (ɔhaha kɔsi mpempem). Cytosol yɛ gelatinous nsu a ɛhyɛ nkwammoaa no ma na ɛtwa akwaa no ho hyia.

Eukaryotic

Nucleus kwammoaa: Nkwammoaa bi nsɛm ho beaɛ, nkwammoaa nucleus ne akwaa a ɛda adi sene biribiara a wɔhunu wɔ eukaryotic nkwammoaa mu. Ɛhɔ na nkwammoaa no nkwaboaa ahodoɔ no wɔ, na ɛkame ayɛ sɛ ɛhɔ na DNA a wɔyɛ no foforɔ ne RNA a wɔyɛ (nkyerɛeɛ) nyinaa kɔ so. Nuklea no yɛ kurukuruwa na ɛnam ntini mmienu a wɔfrɛ no nuklea nkatasoɔ so na ɛtete afiri cytoplasm no ho, wɔfrɛ ahunumu a ɛda saa ntini mmienu yi ntam perinuclear space. Nuklea nkatasoɔ no yi nkwammoaa bi DNA firi molecule ahodoɔ a ɛbɛtumi asɛe ne nhyehyɛe wɔ akwanhyia mu anaasɛ asi ne dwumadi a ɛbɔ ho ban kwan. Berɛ a wɔreyɛ DNA ho adwuma no, wɔkyerɛ DNA, anaasɛ wɔyɛ ho mfonin kɔ RNA soronko bi a wɔfrɛ no messenger RNA (mRNA) mu. Afei wɔde saa mRNA yi firi nuklea no mu, na wɔkyerɛ ase kɔ protein molecule pɔtee bi mu. Nucleolus yɛ beaɛ titiri bi a ɛwɔ nucleus no mu a wɔboaboa ribosome subunits ano. Wɔ prokaryotes mu no, DNA dwumadie kɔ so wɔ cytoplasm mu.[13]

  • Mitochondria and chloroplasts: Mitochondria ne chloroplasts: ɛde ahoɔden ma nkwammoaa no. Mitochondria yɛ akwaa a ɛkyekyere ntini mmienu a ɛyɛ ne ho foforɔ a ɛba wɔ dodoɔ, nsusuiiɛ, ne akɛseɛ ahodoɔ mu wɔ eukaryotic nkwammoaa nyinaa a ɛyɛ cytoplasm mu.[13] Ɔhome ba wɔ nkwammoaa no mitochondria mu, a ɛnam oxidative phosphorylation so na ɛma nkwammoaa no ahoɔden, na ɛde oxygen di dwuma de gyae ahoɔden a wɔde asie wɔ nkwammoaa mu aduane nnuru mu (a mpɛn pii no ɛfa glucose ho) ma ɛyɛ ATP (aerobic respiration). Mitochondria nam mpaapaemu mmienu so dɔɔso te sɛ prokaryotes. Wotumi hu chloroplast wɔ afifideɛ ne atɛkyɛ nkutoo mu, na ɛkyerɛ owia ahoɔden ma ɛyɛ carbohydrates ɛnam photosynthesis nti.
  • Endoplasmic reticulum: Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) yɛ akwantuo nhyehyɛeɛ a ɛde molecule ahodoɔ a wɔde wɔn ani asi so sɛ wɔbɛyɛ nsakraeɛ ahodoɔ bi ne mmeaɛ pɔtee bi, sɛ wɔde toto molecule ahodoɔ a ɛsensɛn cytoplasm no mu a ɛnyɛ hwee ho a. ER no wɔ akwan mmienu: ER a ɛyɛ mmerɛ a ɛwɔ ribosomes wɔ n’anim a ɛma protein kɔ ER no mu, ne ER a ɛyɛ mmerɛ enni ribosomes.[13] ER a ɛyɛ mmerɛ no di dwuma wɔ calcium a wɔtwetwe ne deɛ woyi firi mu no mu na ɛboa nso wɔ lipid a wɔyɛ mu.
  • Golgi apparatus: Golgi mfidie no adwuma titiri ne sɛ ɛbɛyɛ macromolecules te sɛ protein ne lipids a nkwammoaa no yɛ no ho adwuma na ɛkyekyere.
  • Lysosomes and peroxisomes: Lysosomes kura nnipadua no mu enzymes (acid hydrolases). Wɔyam akwaa a ɛboro so anaasɛ asɛe, aduane mu nnoɔma nketenkete, ne mmoawa anaa mmoawa nketewa a wɔakata wɔn so. Peroxisomes wɔ enzymes a ɛyi peroxides a awuduru wɔ mu firi nkwammoaa no mu, Lysosomes yɛ adwuma yiye wɔ acidic pH mu. Nkwammoaa no rentumi mfa saa enzymes a ɛsɛe ade yi ntena mu sɛ ɛnni nhyehyɛeɛ bi a ɛkyekyere ntini no mu a.[13]
  • cytoskeleton nhyehyɛeɛfoɔ: Centrosome no yɛ nkwammoaa bi mu microtubules—a ɛyɛ cytoskeleton no fa titiri. Ɛkyerɛ kwan a ɛfa ER ne Golgi mfidie no so. Centrosomes yɛ centrioles mmienu a ɛda hɔ tee wɔ wɔn ho wɔn ho a emu biara wɔ ahyehyɛdeɛ te sɛ teaseɛnam ntwahonan, a ɛtete bere a nkwammoaa mu mpaapaemu na ɛboa ma wɔyɛ mitotic spindle no. Centrosome baako na ɛwɔ mmoa nkwammoaa no mu. Wohunu wɔ fungi ne atɛkyɛ nkwammoaa bi nso mu.
  • Vacuoles: Vacuoles yi nnoɔma a wɔde gu mu no sɛe na ɛkora nsu no wɔ afifideɛ nkwammoaa mu. Wɔtaa ka ho asɛm sɛ mmeaɛ a nsu ahyɛ mu ma na wɔde aduru bi atwa ho ahyia. Nkwammoaa bi, titiri Amoeba, wɔ ntini a ɛtwetwe nsu, a sɛ nsu pii wɔ hɔ a, ɛbɛtumi de nsu afiri nkwammoaa no mu. Mpɛn pii no, afifideɛ nkwammoaa ne fungal nkwammoaa mu vacuole no sõ sen mmoa nkwammoaa de. Vacuoles a afifideɛ nkwammoaa no atwa ho ahyia tonoplast a ɛboa ma wɔde ions ne nneɛma afoforo kɔ tia concentration gradients.

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic[sesa]

  • Ribosomes: Ribosome yɛ RNA ne protein molecule ahodoɔ a ɛyɛ den kɛseɛ.[13] Wɔn mu biara wɔ akuo nketewa mmienu, na ɛyɛ adwuma sɛ nhyia mu kwan a wɔde RNA a efiri nuklea mu di dwuma de yɛ protein ahodoɔ a efiri amino acid mu. Wobɛtumi ahunu ribosome ahodoɔ a ɛsensɛn hɔ kwa anaasɛ ɛkyekyere ntini bi (endoplasmatic reticulum a ɛyɛ den wɔ eukaryotes mu, anaasɛ nkwammoaa mu ntini a ɛwɔ prokaryotes mu).[21]
  • Plastids: Plastid yɛ akwaa a ɛkyekyere ntini a wɔtaa hunu wɔ afifideɛ nkwammoaa ne euglenoids mu na ɛwɔ kɔla pɔtee bi, ma enti ɛka afifideɛ ne abɔdeɛ a nkwa wom no kɔla. Na saa pigments yi nso boa wɔ aduan a wɔkora so ne hann ahoɔden a wɔde bɔ mu. Plastid ahodoɔ mmiɛnsa na ɛwɔ hɔ a egyina nnoɔma pɔtee a wɔde yɛ so. Chloroplasts kura chlorophyll ne carotenoid pigments binom a ɛboa ma tapping hann ahoɔden wɔ photosynthesis berɛ mu. Chromoplasts kura carotenoid pigments a ɛtumi nwura sradeɛ te sɛ ankaa carotene ne 'yellow xanthophylls' a ɛboa wɔ synthesis ne storage mu. Leucoplasts yɛ plastids a ɛnyɛ kɔla na ɛboa ma wɔkora aduane nnuro wɔ mu.

Nneɛma a wɔahyehyɛ wɔ nkwammoaa no akyi[sesa]

Nkwammoaa pii nso wɔ nhyehyɛeɛ ahodoɔ a ɛwɔ nkwammoaa no akyi koraa anaa ne fa bi. Saa nhyehyɛeɛ ahodoɔ yi da nso efiri sɛ nkwammoaa mu ntini a ɛtumi fa mu fa bi no mmɔ ho ban mfiri akyiri nnoɔma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia no ho. Sɛdeɛ ɛbɛyɛ na wɔaboaboa saa nhyehyɛeɛ ahodoɔ yi ano no, ɛsɛ sɛ wɔde nnoɔma a ɛwom no fa nkwammoaa no mu ɛnam akwan a wɔfa so de kɔ no so.

Nkwammoa fasuo[sesa]

Prokaryotic ne eukaryotic nkwammoaa ahodoɔ pii wɔ nkwammoaa fasuo. Nkwammoaa fasuo no yɛ adwuma de nnuru bɔ nkwammoaa no ho ban firi nnoɔma a atwa ne ho ahyia ho, na ɛyɛ ahobammɔ foforo a ɛbɔ nkwammoaa no mu ntini no ho ban. Nkwammoaa ahodoɔ wɔ nkwammoaa afasuo a nnoɔma ahodoɔ na ɛyɛ; afifideɛ nkwammoaa afasuo yɛ cellulose titiri, fungi nkwammoaa afasuo yɛ chitin na mmoawa nkwammoaa afasuo yɛ peptidoglycan.

Prokaryotic[sesa]

Capsule[sesa]

Gelatinous capsule bi wɔ mmoawa bi mu a ɛwɔ nkwammoaa no ntini ne nkwammoaa fasuo akyi. Capsule no bɛtumi ayɛ polysaccharide sɛdeɛ ɛte wɔ pneumococci, meningococci anaa polypeptide sɛ Bacillus anthracis anaa hyaluronic acid sɛdeɛ ɛwɔ streptococci mu no. Wɔmfa staining protocols a ɛfata nhyɛ capsules agyinae na wobɛtumi de India ink anaa methyl blue ahunu, na ɛma nsonsonoeɛ kɛseɛ ba nkwammoaa no ntam sɛ wɔrehwɛ a.

Flagella[sesa]

Flagella yɛ akwaa a ɛma nkwammoaa tumi tu. Mmoawa flagellum no trɛw firi cytoplasm mu fa nkwammoaa ntini no mu na ɛfa nkwammoaa no fasuo no mu firi adi. Wɔyɛ nnoɔma ma atenten a ɛyɛ den a ɛte sɛ asaawa a wɔde ka ho, protein wɔ abɔdeɛ mu. Flagellum soronko bi wɔ tetefoɔ nnoɔma mu na emu soronko bi wɔ eukaryotes mu.

Fimbriae a ɛwɔ nipadua mu[sesa]

Fimbria (dodow kabea fimbriae a wɔsan frɛ no pilus, dodow kabea pili) yɛ nhoma tiawa a ɛyɛ tratraa a ɛte sɛ nhwi a wohu wɔ mmoawa ani. Protein bi a wɔfrɛ no pilin (antigenic) na ɛyɛ fimbriae na ɛno na ɛma mmoawa bata nnoɔma pɔtee bi a ɛwɔ nnipa nkwammoaa mu ho (nkwaboaa a ɛbata ho). Pili ahodoɔ soronko bi wɔ hɔ a ɛka mmoawa a wɔde wɔn ho hyɛ mu no ho.

N'abɔseɛ[sesa]

Asɛm titiri: Nkwa ho abakɔsɛm a ɛfa adannandie ho

Nkwammoaa abɔseɛ fa nkwa mfitiaseɛ ho, na ɛno na efiri asetena a ɛwɔ Asase so ho abakɔsɛm ase.

Nkwammoaa a edi kan no mfitiase[sesa]

Nsɛm foforɔ: Abiogenesis ne Evolution of cell

Nsusuiiɛ ahodoɔ pii wɔ hɔ a ɛfa sɛdeɛ molecule nketenkete a ɛde nkwa baa Asase a edi kan no so no mfitiase ho. Ebiara wɔde wɔn kɔɔ Asase so wɔ meteorites so (hwɛ Murchison meteorite), wɔbɔɔ wɔn wɔ po a emu dɔ mu mframa a ɛkɔ mu, anaasɛ anyinam a ɛwɔ wiem a ɛte so na ɛyɛɛ no (hwɛ Miller–Urey sɔhwɛ). Nsɔhwɛ mu nsɛm kakraa bi na ɛwɔ hɔ a ɛkyerɛkyerɛ deɛ na ɛyɛ nkyerɛdeɛ ahodoɔ a edi kan a wɔyɛɛ wɔn ho sɛdeɛ ɛte no mu. Wosusu sɛ RNA ne molecule a edi kan a ɛyɛ ne ho, ɛfiri sɛ ɛtumi sie awosuo mu nsɛm na ɛma nnuro yɛ adwuma (hwɛ RNA wiase nsusuiiɛ hunu), nanso anka ade foforɔ bi a ɛbɛtumi ayɛ ne ho foforɔ bɛtumi adi RNA anim, te sɛ dɔte anaa peptide nucleic acid a wɔde yɛ nnoɔma.[22]

Anyɛ yie koraa no, nkwammoaa puei mfeɛ ɔpepepem 3.5 a atwam ni.[23][24][25] Mprempren gyidie ne sɛ na saa nkwammoaa yi yɛ heterotrophs. Ahyɛaseɛ no mu no na nkwammoaa mu ntini a edi kan no yɛ mmerɛ na ɛtumi fa mu sene nnɛyi de no, na na sradeɛ nkɔnsɔnkɔnsɔn baako pɛ na ɛwɔ sradeɛ biara mu. Wonim sɛ sradeɛ firi ne ho yɛ ntini a ɛwɔ ntoatoaso mmienu wɔ nsu mu, na anka ɛbɛtumi adi RNA anim, nanso anka wobɛtumi de RNA a ɛma nnoɔma yɛ kɛseɛ nso ayɛ nkwammoaa mu ntini a edi kan no, anaasɛ mpo na ebɛhia protein ahodoɔ a ɛwɔ nhyehyɛeɛ mu ansa na ayɛ.[26]

Nhwehwɛmu ho abakɔsɛm[sesa]

Asɛm titiri: Nkwammoaa ho nsusuiiɛ

Robert Hooke mfonini a ɔyɛe a ɛfa nkwammoaa a wɔde korɔn ayɛ ho, wɔ 1665

  • 1632–1723: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek kyerɛɛ ne ho sɛdeɛ wɔyɛ ahwehwɛ, ɔyɛɛ mfidie a wɔde hwɛ nnoɔma nketenkete a wɔde hwɛ ade titiri na ɔtwee mmoawa a wɔsɛe nnɔbae te sɛ Vorticella fii osutɔ nsu mu, ne mmoawa fii n’ankasa anom.
  • 1665: Robert Hooke de afidie a wɔde hwɛ nnoɔma nketenkete a wɔde afrafra a edi kan no hunuu nkwammoaa wɔ korɔn mu, afei afifideɛ ntini a nkwa wɔ mu. Ɔde asɛmfua cell (a ɛfiri Latin kasa cellula, a ɛkyerɛ "dan ketewa"[2]) wɔ ne nwoma Micrographia (1665) mu.[27]
  • 1839: Theodor Schwann ne Matthias Jakob Schleiden maa nnyinasosɛm a ɛne sɛ wɔde nkwammoaa na ɛyɛ afifideɛ ne mmoa no a ɛwɔ nkwammoa mu, na wɔde baa awieɛ sɛ nkwammoaa yɛ ade baako a ɛbom yɛ nhyehyɛeɛ ne nkɔsoɔ, na wɔnam saayɛ so de nkwammoaa ho nsusuwii no sii hɔ.
  • 1855: Rudolf Virchow kae sɛ nkwammoaa foforɔ firi nkwammoaa a na ɛwɔ hɔ deda mu ɛnam nkwammoaa mu mpaapaemu (omnis cellula ex cellula) so.
  • 1859: Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) kasa tiaa gyidie a ɛne sɛ nkwa ahodoɔ bɛtumi aba kwa (generatio spontanea) (ɛwom sɛ na Francesco Redi ayɛ sɔhwɛ bi wɔ 1668 mu a ɛkyerɛ sɛ wɔde baa awieɛ koro no ara).
  • 1931: Ernst Ruska yɛɛ ɛlɛtrɔnik afidie a wɔde hwɛ nnoɔma nketenkete (TEM) a edi kan wɔ Berlin Sukuupɔn mu. Eduro 1935 no, na wayɛ EM a ne kɛseɛ yɛ hann afidie a wɔde hwɛ nnoɔma nketenkete mmɔho mmienu, na ɛdaa akwaa ahodoɔ a kan no na wontumi nsiesie no adi.
  • 1953: Watson ne Crick gyinaa Rosalind Franklin adwuma so de wɔn dawurubɔ a edi kan faa DNA a ɛwɔ helix mmienu no ho too dwa.
  • 1981: Lynn Margulis tintim Symbiosis in Cell Evolution a ɛkyerɛkyerɛɛ endosymbiotic nkyerɛkyerɛ no mu kɔɔ akyiri.

Beaɛ a menyaa mmoa firiiɛ[sesa]

  1. ↑ Adegbola Ojo (2020-12-29), "Building Blocks: Spatial Data Preparation", GIS and Machine Learning for Small Area Classifications in Developing Countries, CRC Press, pp. 85–108, ISBN 978-0-429-31834-4, retrieved 2023-08-01
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Charlton Thomas Lewis (2020), A Latin dictionary: founded on Andrews' edition of Freund's Latin dictionary, William C. Freund, E. A. Andrews, Charles Short, Chapel-en-le-Frith: Nigel Gourlay, ISBN 978-1-9998557-8-9 {{citation}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  3. ↑ Diane B. Paul (2021-04-29), "Imagining Life with a Genetic Disorder: The Challenge of Evaluating Health States that Exist from Birth", OBM Genetics, vol. 05, no. 02, pp. 1–1, doi:10.21926/obm.genet.2102130, ISSN 2577-5790, retrieved 2023-08-01
  4. ↑ P. B. GAHAN (1997-03), <64::aid-cbf708>3.0.co;2-q "Book Review: Cell and Molecular Biology: Concepts and Experiments: G. Karp. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 824 pages, £21.95. ISBN 0 471 59913 1.", Cell Biochemistry and Function, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 64–64, doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-0844(199703)15:1<64::aid-cbf708>3.0.co;2-q, ISSN 0263-6484, retrieved 2023-08-01 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ↑ Figure 3: Robert Hooke’s invention and microscope discovery in Micrographia (Hooke, 1665), (A) a microscope and (B) a thin slice of the cork (the origin ‘cell’ term were coined)., retrieved 2023-08-01
  6. ↑ Ann Magee (1967-05), "Colonies or Nations? H.Passin (editor), The United States and Japan, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1966. 174 pages.F. H.Golay (editor), The United States and the Philippines, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1966, 179 pages.", Pacific Viewpoint, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 114–115, doi:10.1111/apv.81014, ISSN 0030-8978, retrieved 2023-08-01 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ↑ J. William Schopf, Anatoliy B. Kudryavtsev, Andrew D. Czaja, Abhishek B. Tripathi (2007-10), "Evidence of Archean life: Stromatolites and microfossils", Precambrian Research (in English), vol. 158, no. 3–4, pp. 141–155, doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.009, retrieved 2023-08-01 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ↑ J. William Schopf (2006-06-29), "Fossil evidence of Archaean life", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences (in English), vol. 361, no. 1470, pp. 869–885, doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1834, ISSN 0962-8436, retrieved 2023-08-01
  9. ↑ Peter H. Raven, George B. Johnson (2002), Biology, McGraw-Hill higher education (internat. ed., 6. ed ed.), Boston: McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-112261-0 {{citation}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |edition= has extra text (help)
  10. ↑ "From Building Blocks to 3-D Structure", Introduction to Peptides and Proteins, CRC Press, pp. 17–18, 2009-11-18, ISBN 978-0-429-11208-9, retrieved 2023-08-01
  11. ↑ "EUKARYOTIC CELL", Eukaryotic Cell, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–19, 2010-01, doi:10.1128/ec.00278-09, ISSN 1535-9778, retrieved 2023-08-02 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ↑ Daphne Chung (2000-11), "Microbiology: Principles and Explorations (4th edn) by Jacquelyn G. Black", Trends in Microbiology, vol. 8, no. 11, p. 527, doi:10.1016/s0966-842x(00)01834-5, ISSN 0966-842X, retrieved 2023-08-14 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  13. ↑ 13.00 13.01 13.02 13.03 13.04 13.05 13.06 13.07 13.08 13.09 Figure 4: Distribution of major Alonella clades (both original and sequences retrieved from NCBI GenBank)., retrieved 2023-08-04
  14. ↑ Guenter Stoesser (2004-10-15), "EBI (EMBL-EBI, European Bioinformatics Institute)", Dictionary of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., retrieved 2023-08-14
  15. ↑ Sebastien Pichoff, Joe Lutkenhaus (2007-12), "Overview of cell shape: cytoskeletons shape bacterial cells", Current Opinion in Microbiology, vol. 10, no. 6, pp. 601–605, doi:10.1016/j.mib.2007.09.005, ISSN 1369-5274, retrieved 2023-08-04 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 David T. Kysela, Amelia M. Randich, Paul D. Caccamo, Yves V. Brun (2016-10-03), "Diversity Takes Shape: Understanding the Mechanistic and Adaptive Basis of Bacterial Morphology", PLOS Biology, vol. 14, no. 10, pp. e1002565, doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002565, ISSN 1545-7885, retrieved 2023-08-04{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ↑ Peter Satir, Søren T. Christensen (2008-03-26), "Structure and function of mammalian cilia", Histochemistry and Cell Biology, vol. 129, no. 6, pp. 687–693, doi:10.1007/s00418-008-0416-9, ISSN 0948-6143, retrieved 2023-08-04
  18. ↑ Editors IAWA Journal (1992), "Biology of Plants, 5th Edition. P.H. Raven, R.F. Evert and S.E. Eichhorn, xvii + 791 pp., iIlus., 1992. Worth Publishers, New York. ISBN 0-87901-532-2. Price: US$ 46.95 (hard cover).", IAWA Journal, vol. 13, no. 4, p. 455, doi:10.1163/22941932-90001301, ISSN 0928-1541, retrieved 2023-08-04 {{citation}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  19. ↑ "Selectively permeable composite membrane structures", Membrane Technology, vol. 2002, no. 10, p. 11, 2002-10, doi:10.1016/s0958-2118(02)01019-4, ISSN 0958-2118, retrieved 2023-08-04 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  20. ↑ Katharine A. Michie, Jan Löwe (2006-06-01), "Dynamic Filaments of the Bacterial Cytoskeleton", Annual Review of Biochemistry (in English), vol. 75, no. 1, pp. 467–492, doi:10.1146/annurev.biochem.75.103004.142452, ISSN 0066-4154, retrieved 2023-08-04
  21. ↑ Jean-François Ménétret, Julia Schaletzky, William M. Clemons, Andrew R. Osborne, Sigrid S. Skånland, Carilee Denison, Steven P. Gygi, Don S. Kirkpatrick, Eunyong Park, Steven J. Ludtke, Tom A. Rapoport, Christopher W. Akey (2007-12), "Ribosome Binding of a Single Copy of the SecY Complex: Implications for Protein Translocation", Molecular Cell, vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 1083–1092, doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2007.10.034, ISSN 1097-2765, retrieved 2023-08-14 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ↑ Leslie E. Orgel (1998-12), "The origin of life—a review of facts and speculations", Trends in Biochemical Sciences (in English), vol. 23, no. 12, pp. 491–495, doi:10.1016/S0968-0004(98)01300-0, retrieved 2023-08-14 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  23. ↑ J. William Schopf, Anatoliy B. Kudryavtsev, Andrew D. Czaja, Abhishek B. Tripathi (2007-10), "Evidence of Archean life: Stromatolites and microfossils", Precambrian Research (in English), vol. 158, no. 3–4, pp. 141–155, doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.009, retrieved 2023-08-14 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ↑ J. William Schopf (2006-06-29), "Fossil evidence of Archaean life", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences (in English), vol. 361, no. 1470, pp. 869–885, doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1834, ISSN 0962-8436, retrieved 2023-08-14
  25. ↑ Peter H. Raven, George B. Johnson (2002), Biology, McGraw-Hill higher education (internat. ed., 6. ed ed.), Boston: McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-112261-0 {{citation}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |edition= has extra text (help)
  26. ↑ Gareth Griffiths (2007-12), "Cell evolution and the problem of membrane topology", Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology (in English), vol. 8, no. 12, pp. 1018–1024, doi:10.1038/nrm2287, ISSN 1471-0072, retrieved 2023-08-14 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ↑ Figure 3: Robert Hooke’s invention and microscope discovery in Micrographia (Hooke, 1665), (A) a microscope and (B) a thin slice of the cork (the origin ‘cell’ term were coined)., retrieved 2023-08-14
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