Jump to content

Nhomasua mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ

Ɛfi Wikipedia

Nhomasua mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ ne adesua mu nneɛma a wɔkyekyɛ no pɛpɛɛpɛ, a sukuu sika, akyerɛkyerɛfo a wɔfata na wɔn ho akokwaw, nhoma, ne mfiridwuma ho nimdeɛ ka ho, ma mpɔtam a wɔayi wɔn afi asetra mu. Saa mpɔtam yi taa yɛ nea abakɔsɛm mu ahokyere na wɔhyɛ wɔn so. Wɔtaa mma ankorankoro a wɔka akuw a wɔato wɔn hintidua yi ho no kwan mma wɔnkɔ sukuu ahorow a wɔwɔ nneɛma a ɛfata mu. Pɛyɛ a enni hɔ no ma nsonsonoe kɛse ba saa ankorankoro yi nhomasua mu nkonimdi anaa wɔn mmɔdenbɔ mu na awiei koraa no esiw asetra ne sikasɛm mu nkɔso ano. Wɔakyekyɛ pɛyɛ a enni nhomasua mu mu ahorow: ɔmantam mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ, pɛyɛ a enni hɔ wɔ ɔbarima ne ɔbea nna mu, pɛyɛ a enni hɔ denam asetra mu nkyekyem so, pɛyɛ a enni hɔ wɔ awofo sika a wonya mu, pɛyɛ a enni hɔ wɔ awofo adwuma mu, ne nea ɛkeka ho pii.[1]

Nhomasua mu mmɔdenbɔ a wɔsusu no gu ahodoɔ wɔ aman ne mpo amantam/amantam a ɛwɔ ɔman no mu. Mpɛn pii no, wɔde abasobɔde, GPA sɔhwɛ mu nkontaahyɛde, nkontaa afoforo, dodow a wogyae sukuu, akontaabu a ɛfa kɔlege a wɔkɔ, ne kɔlege a wɔawie dodow di dwuma de susuw nhomasua mu nkonimdi ne nea onipa no betumi anya. Eyinom yɛ nneɛma a wɔde susuw ankorankoro bi adesua mu mmɔdenbɔ ho. Sɛ wɔrekyerɛ nea ɛsɛ sɛ wɔsusuw wɔ ankorankoro nhomasua mu nkonimdi ho a, nhomanimfo ne nhomanimfo pii kyerɛ sɛ ɛnyɛ GPA, sɔhwɛ mu nkontaahyɛde, ne nneɛma afoforo a wɔde kyerɛ sɛnea obi tumi yɛ adwuma no nkutoo ne nnwinnade a mfaso wɔ so a wɔde kyerɛ sɛnea otumi yɛ adwuma yiye[1] Wɔ adesua mu nkɔsoɔ akyi no, ɛsɛ sɛ wɔsusu adesua botaeɛ a wɔadu ho, ahokokwaa ne ahokokwaa a wɔpɛ a wɔbɛnya, abotɔyam, nsiyɛ, ne kɔlege akyi adwumayɛ nyinaa na wɔbu ho akontaa berɛ a wɔrekyerɛ ankorankoro nwomasua mu nkonimdie. Nhomanimfo ka sɛ adesua mu nkɔso yɛ nea efi adesua botae ahorow a wodu ho na wonya ahokokwaw ne ahokokwaw a wɔpɛ mu ba tẽẽ nkutoo. Sɛ wɔbɛsusu nwomasua mu mmɔdenbɔ pɛpɛɛpɛ a, ɛho hia sɛ wɔtetew adesua mu nkɔsoɔ mu ɛfiri sɛ ɛkyere osuani bi adwumayɛ tumi nko ara na ɛnyɛ ne adesua anaa tumi a ɔde bedi dwuma yie.[2]

Wɔkyerɛ sɛ nhomasua mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ no fã kɛse no ara fi sikasɛm mu nsonsonoe a ɛtaa hwe ase wɔ mmusuakuw ntam, na nnɛyi nkɔmmɔbɔ pii a ɛfa nhomasua mu pɛyɛ ho no de abien no frafra, na ɛkyerɛ sɛnea wontumi ntetew wɔn ho mfi beae a wɔte ne, nnansa yi ara, kasa ho[3] Wɔ aman pii mu no, nnipa a wɔkorɔn anaasɛ nnipa kuw titiriw bi wɔ hɔ a wonya so mfaso kɛse sen nnipa akuw nketewa anaa nhyehyɛe ahorow a ɛba fam wɔ saa beae no, te sɛ India caste nhyehyɛe sɛ nhwɛso no. Wɔ nhwehwɛmu bi a ɛfa nhomasua mu pɛyɛ a enni India ho mu no, akyerɛwfo, Majumbar, Manadi, ne Jos Mooij kae sɛ "asetra mu adesuakuw no de ne ho hyɛ nhomasua nhyehyɛe, nhomasua nhyehyɛe ne nhomasua mu nsunsuanso so" (Majumdar, Manabi ne Jos Mooij) .[4] Ɛtɔ da bi a abusuakuw, nyamesom ne abusuakuw betumi asi abofra daakye ne hokwan ahorow a obenya wɔ nhomasua ne nea ɛkɔ akyiri ho gyinae. Wɔ mmeawa a wɔn ho nni asɛm dedaw fam no, sɛ wonya sukuu a ɛwɔ hɔ ma adesuakuw a wɔkorɔn nkutoo anaasɛ nnipa dodow no ara akuwakuw wɔ mmeae ahorow te sɛ Asia Kesee Fam a, ebetumi anya nhyehyɛe ahorow no so nkɛntɛnso ma wɔadi onipa biako ahiade, na agyaw obiara a aka. Eyi te saa wɔ akuw pii a ɛwɔ Asia Kesee Fam no fam. Wɔ asɛm bi a ɛfa nhomasua mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ a nnipa akuw nya so nkɛntɛnso ho mu no, ahyehyɛde Action Education ka sɛ "sɛ wɔwo obi wɔ mmusuakuw kakraa bi mu anaa kasa mu kuw ketewaa bi mu a, ebetumi aka hokwan a abofra wɔ sɛ ɔbɛkɔ sukuu ne nea osua bere a ɔwɔ hɔ no kɛse" (Action Education ) .[5]Yehu sɛ wɔreyɛ nneɛma pii ama mmeawa binom nkutoo, a wɔn mu dodow no ara ka kurow no mu kasa. Nea ɛne eyi bɔ abira no, wogyaw mmeawa pii a wofi nkuraase wɔ Asia Kesee Fam no nkyɛn ma enti wɔmfa wɔn ho nhyɛ sukuu mu. Nhomasua mu pɛyɛ a enni sukuufo aborɔfo ne sukuufo kakraa bi ntam no kɔ so ma asetra ne sikasɛm mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ no kɔ so tra hɔ[1] Ade foforo a ɛde ba ne adan a entumi nnyina pintinn, a wɔada no adi sɛ ɛma ayayade, ahodwiriw, kasa, ne nkɔso a ɛkyɛ, na ɛma adesua mu nkɔso so tew. Nea ɛka adan a entumi nnyina pintinn ho no, aduan a wonnya nso ne adesua mu nkɔso a ɛso tew, titiriw wɔ akontaabu ne akenkan mu no wɔ abusuabɔ. Adesuadan a wonni ne adesua nneɛma kakraa bi a wonni no nya adesua nhyehyɛe no so nkɛntɛnso bɔne ma mmofra. Wɔ wiase mmeae pii no, sukuufo baanum anaa nea ɛboro saa taa kyɛ adesua nhoma dedaw ne nea asɛe bere koro mu.[6]

Wɔ wiase nyinaa no, wɔakɔ so abɔ mmɔden sɛ wɔbɛyɛ nsakrae wɔ nhomasua mu wɔ gyinabea ahorow nyinaa mu.[7]Esiane sɛ nneɛma ahorow a ɛde ba a agye ntini kɛse wɔ abakɔsɛm, ɔmanfo, ne amammerɛ mu nti, ɛyɛ den sɛ wobetu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ yi ase. Ɛwom sɛ ɛyɛ den de, nanso nhomasua ho hia na ama ɔmanfo akɔ n’anim. Ɛhyɛ "ɔman ba, nipasu, hokwan a ɛyɛ pɛ ne asetra mu nkabom, asetra mu biakoyɛ, ne sikasɛm mu nkɔso ne adwumayɛ nso ho nkuran," na wɔhyɛ pɛyɛ ho nkuran kɛse esiane saa nneɛma yi nti[8]Wiase nyinaa nhomasua mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ no da adi pefee wɔ adesua mu ahokyere a ɛrekɔ so no mu, baabi a mmofra bɛboro 91% a wɔwɔ wiase nyinaa de wɔn din ahyɛ mfitiase sukuu mu; nanso, wɔn mu fã kɛse no ara nsua ade. Wiase Nyinaa Sikakorabea nhwehwɛmu bi daa no adi sɛ “mmofra a wɔwɔ aman a wonnya sika pii ne aman a wonnya sika pii mu ɔha biara mu 53 ntumi nkenkan asɛm a ɛnyɛ den na wɔnte ase ansa na wɔawie mfitiase sukuu.”[9] Wiase nyinaa nhomasua mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ a wogye tom no ama wɔagye Amanaman Nkabom no Nkɔso a Ɛkɔ So Daa Botae 4 a ɛhyɛ nhomasua pa a ɛka obiara ho na ɛyɛ pɛ ho nkuran ma obiara no atom.

Wɔkyerɛ sɛ nhomasua mu aba a ɛnyɛ pɛ no fi nneɛma pii a ɛsakra, a abusua a wofi mu, ɔbarima ne ɔbea nna, ne asetra mu kuw ka ho. Nkɔso, sika a wonya, akwahosan tebea, ne amammui mu kyɛfa a wonya nso boa ma nhomasua mu pɛyɛ a enni United States ne aman afoforo mu ba[10]

Abusua akyigyina[sesa]

Esiane sɛ ɛne nneɛma a wɔde yɛ adwuma wɔ abusuabɔ nti, White sukuufo taa nya awofo a wɔasua nhoma sen sukuufo a wofi mmusua nketewa mu[11]Esiane sɛ ɛne nneɛma a wɔde yɛ adwuma wɔ abusuabɔ nti, White sukuufo taa nya awofo a wɔasua nhoma sen sukuufo a wofi mmusua nketewa mu[12]Eyi kyerɛ ase sɛ ofie asetra a ɛboa nhomasua mu nkonimdi kɛse. Eyi taa ma wonya mmoa pii wɔ fie, wonya nhoma pii wɔ wɔn fie, kɔ nhomakorabea pii, na wɔde wɔn ho hyɛ nkɔmmɔbɔ a emu yɛ den mu wɔ adwene mu[12]Enti mmofra kɔ sukuu wɔ gyinabea ahorow mu. Sukuufo a wodi hia no di akyi wɔ nsɛm a wɔkae, nsɛmfua, akontaabu, ne akenkan mu nkɔso mu na wɔwɔ suban ho haw pii.[13] Eyi ma wɔde wɔn kɔ level class ahorow a ɛdi wɔn akyi no mu[14]Ɛkame ayɛ sɛ bere nyinaa na adesua ahorow yi hwehwɛ pii fi wɔn asuafo hɔ, na ɛma kuw bi a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ sɛ wonni nhomasua ho ɔpɛ[7]Mpɛn pii no, adesua ahorow yi nyɛ nea wɔde kɔ kɔlege na akyerɛkyerɛfo a wɔn ho akokwaw pii na wɔkyerɛkyerɛ[1]

Afei nso, abusua a wofi mu nya amammerɛ mu nimdeɛ ne nsusuwii ahorow so nkɛntɛnso. Mfinimfini mpanyimfo nimdeɛ a ɛfa gyinapɛn ne amanne ahorow ho ma asuafo a wɔwɔ saa nimdeɛ yi tumi fa sukuu nhyehyɛe no mu yiye[12] Awofo a wofi saa adesuakuw yi mu ne nea ɛboro saa nso wɔ sohyial network ahorow a mfaso wɔ so sen nea ɛwɔ adesuakuw a ɛba fam mu no. Saa nkitahodi ahorow yi betumi aboa asuafo ma wɔanya sukuu, dwumadi ahorow, ne nea ɛkeka ho a ɛfata.[12] Bio nso, mmofra a wofi mmusua a wodi hia mu, a mpɛn pii no wɔyɛ nnipa kakraa bi no fi mmusua a wonni ahyehyɛde ahorow mu ahotoso[12] Amerika abakɔsɛm a ɛfa mmusua mu nyiyim ne nyiyim ho no ama wɔanya hokwan ahorow a wosusuw sɛ ɛwɔ hɔ ne/anaasɛ ɛwɔ hɔ dedaw ma ɔman mma a wodi hia ne nnipa kakraa bi pii. Saa ɔdan atifi yi siw adesua mu nhyɛso ano na esiw nkɔso ano.[12]

Latino atubrafo a wɔanya nkɔanim nnansa yi [bere bɛn?] ne kɛse no ama ade titiriw foforo aba nhomasua mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ. Bere a sukuufo pii fi mmusua a wɔnka Borɔfo kasa wɔ fie mu no, wɔtaa bɔ mmɔden sɛ wobedi kasa mu akwanside bi so na wɔasua nsɛmti kɛkɛ[3] Wɔtaa nnya mmoa wɔ fie efisɛ ɛtaa ba sɛ awofo no nte adwuma a ɛwɔ Borɔfo kasa mu no ase[14]

Bio nso, nhwehwɛmu da no adi sɛ ahohuru bere mu asram no yɛ bere titiriw ma mmofra nhomasua mu nkɔso. Sukuufo a wofi mmusua a wonni ahokokwaw mu no hwere ahokokwaw kɛse wɔ ahohuru bere mu akwamma bere mu[13] Sukuufo a wofi asetra ne sikasɛm mu akuw a ɛba fam mu fi ɔwofo biako afie ne mpɔtam a asiane wɔ mu wɔ ɔkwan a ɛnsɛ so.[7] Wɔtete Aborɔfo mmofra 15% wɔ ɔwofo biako afie mu na Asiafo mmofra 10% nso tete wɔn. Wɔtete Latinofo 27% wɔ ɔwofo biako afie mu na wɔtete Afrikafo-Amerikafo mmofra 54%[14] Nneɛma kakraa bi a wɔde yɛ adwuma, awofo a wɔmfa wɔn adwene nsi so kɛse, ne adwennwen pii nyinaa nya mmofra mmɔdenbɔ wɔ sukuu so nkɛntɛnso.

Theoretical model of mediating mechanisms between social background and learning outcomes by Max Nachbauer.jpg

Nneɛma ahorow pii na ɛma asetra ne sikasɛm mu nkɔso mu nsonsonoe ba. Wɔakyerɛkyerɛ nkitahodi a ɛda asetra mu nkitahodi afã horow ntam wɔ nhwɛso a ɛfa ntamgyinafo akwan horow a ɛda asetra mu nsɛm ne adesua mu nkɔso ntam no mu[15][16] Nhwɛsoɔ no kyerɛkyerɛ ntamgyinafoɔ nhyehyɛeɛ a ɛwɔ anammɔn ahodoɔ pii mu. Mmusua a wɔwɔ asetra mu hokwan ahorow no wɔ sikasɛm, ankorankoro, ne asetra mu nneɛma pii a wobetumi anya sen mmusua a wonni asetra mu ahokyere. Nsonsonoe a ɛwɔ abusua nneɛma mu no ma nsonsonoe ba adesua tebea horow a mmofra nya mu. Mmofra a wɔwɔ asetra mu tebea ahorow mu nya ofie adesua tebea ahorow, wɔkɔ mmofra mmofraase mmeae ahorow, sukuu ahorow, mmeae ahorow a ɛfa sukuu ho, ne mmeae ahorow a wɔde gye wɔn ani, na wɔwɔ atipɛnfo akuw ahorow. Esiane saa nsonsonoeɛ yi a ɛwɔ adesua tebea mu nti, mmofra a wɔwɔ asetena mu tebea ahodoɔ yɛ adesua dwumadie ahodoɔ na wɔnya adesua ho ahwehwɛdeɛ ahodoɔ.

Bɔbea[sesa]

Mmea a Wɔhaw[sesa]

Akwanside ahorow a esiw mmea kwan sɛ wobenya nhomasua pa no bi ne atetesɛm mu adwene a wɔwɔ wɔ mmarima ne mmea dwumadi ahorow ho, ohia, asasesin a wɔtew wɔn ho fi afoforo ho, basabasayɛ a egyina mmarima ne mmea so, aware a wodi ntɛm ne nyinsɛn.[17] Wɔ wiase nyinaa no, wobu akontaa sɛ mmeawa dɔɔso bɛyɛ ɔpepem 7 sen mmarimaa a wɔnkɔ sukuu. Saa "mmeawa nsonsonoe" yi ayɛ kɛse wɔ aman pii a Somalia, Afghanistan, Togo, Central African Republic, ne Democratic Republic of the Congo ka ho. Wɔ Democratic Republic of the Congo no, mmeawa dɔɔso sen abien ma biako.[18] Asia Kesee Fam Apuei mmarima ne mmea ntam nkitahodi ahorow no kɔ abakɔsɛm mu kɔ akyiri na ɛka mmabaa daakye asetra mu afã horow nyinaa. Atetesɛm mu mmarima ne mmea dwumadi ahorow a wɔde to mmeawa so no ma mmea so tew fi sukuu ne mmea a wɔn mfe akɔ anim a wonsuaa nhoma pii wɔ Asia Kesee Fam Apuei no su. Wɔ nsɛmma nhoma bi a ɛfa mmea a wɔwɔ Devanga mpɔtam wɔ India ho mu no, Pooja Haridarshan ka sɛ "mmea [wɔ] 70% a wɔwɔ Asia Kesee Fam no ware wɔ wɔn mmofraase, a ɛno ne mmofra a wɔwo ntɛm ne gyinaesi tumi a wonni wɔ... atetesɛm abusua nhyehyɛe ahorow, a ɛma wɔn gyinabea a "wɔn ho nni asɛm" wɔ ɔmanfo mu no kɔ so yɛ kɛse" (Haridarshan).[19] Wɔhwɛ kwan sɛ mmea no bɛware mmofra, awo na wɔatete mma, na ɛremma baabiara mma wɔn nhomasua, na ɛhyɛ mmeawa nkumaa nkuran sɛ wɔn nso wonni wɔn anammɔn akyi. Nanso nea ɛyɛ hu ne sɛ mmea a wonsuaa nhoma pii betumi adi hia esiane nneɛma a wonni nti. Eyi yɛ tebea a ɛnteɛ a ɛda adi sɛ mpaapaemu da mmarima nhomasua mu nkonimdi ne mmea nhomasua mu nkonimdi ntam. Eyi ne baabi a yɛn biako no susuw ano aduru ho. Wɔ asɛm bi a ɛfa mmofra yiyedi ho wɔ Asia Kesee Fam mu no, akyerɛwfo Jativa Ximena ne Michelle Mills ka sɛ "wɔ aman ne mpɔtam a mmeawa ntumi nkɔ baabiara no, ɛsɛ sɛ wɔma mmeawa hokwan pii ma wɔtoa nhomasua ne ahokokwaw ntetee so" (Ximena ne Mills).[20]

Ɔbarima ne ɔbea dwumadi ahorow a ɛwɔ asetra mu no ka mmea a wobetumi anya nhomasua. Sɛ nhwɛso no, wɔ Nigeria no, wɔde mmofra ka wɔn bɔbeasu dwumadi pɔtee ho bere a wɔn awofo nim wɔn bɔbeasu ara pɛ. Mmarima na wɔpɛ sɛ wɔyɛ ɔbarima anaa ɔbea na wɔhyɛ wɔn nkuran sɛ wɔmfa wɔn ho nhyɛ kɔmputa ne nyansahu adesua mu bere a mmea sua ofie nneɛma. Saa mmarima ne mmaa dwumadie yi agye ntini wɔ ɔman no mu, nanso, ɛnam sɛ atɔeɛ fam nwomasua a ɛkɔ soro wɔ Nigeria mu nti, nnansa yi nkɔanim aba wɔ tumi a mmaa tumi nya nwomasua a ɛyɛ pɛ no mu. Nanso, nneɛma pii da so ara wɔ hɔ a ɛsɛ sɛ wɔsesa. Nigeria da so ara hia nhyehyɛe ahorow a ɛhyɛ nhomasua ho nkuran ma mmarima ne mmea a egyina wɔn mmɔdenbɔ so, sen sɛ wobegyina ɔbarima ne ɔbea nna so.[21]

Wɔda no adi sɛ mmea wɔ asiane mu sɛ wɔbɛtow ahyɛ wɔn so wɔ anyɛ yiye koraa no aman 15 mu[22] Ntua betumi aba efisɛ ankorankoro a wɔwɔ saa aman no mu nnye nni sɛ ɛsɛ sɛ mmea nya nhomasua. Ntua no bi ne nkurɔfo a wɔkyere nkurɔfo sie, atopae a wɔtow, ayayade, mmonnaato, ne awudi. Wɔ Somalia no, wɔakyere mmeawa akɔ. Wɔbɔɔ amanneɛ sɛ wɔtoo Colombia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, ne Libya sukuufo mmonnaa na wɔhaw wɔn.[22] Wɔ Pakistan ne Afghanistan no, wɔatow atopae agu sukuu ne bɔs ahorow so na wɔde gas ahyɛ mu. Aware a wodi kan ware no ka sɛnea mmea betumi anya nhomasua.[23]

"Nsonsonoe a ɛtetew mmarima ne mmea ntam wɔ adwumayɛ ho gua so no da so ara yɛ kɛse wɔ aman pii mu, sɛ́ ɛyɛ Atifi anaa Kesee Fam. Esiane sɛ nsakrae kakraa bi na ɛwɔ aman dodow no ara ntam nti, mmea wɔ adwumayɛ dodow a ɛba fam, wonni adwuma kyɛ, wotua wɔn akatua kakraa bi, na wonnya kakraa bi." nnwuma a ahobammɔ wom.[24] "Mmabaa, titiriw hu amane nyiyim mmɔho abien. Nea edi kan esiane sɛ wɔyɛ mmerante ne mmabaa, wɔ nsakrae fã a emu yɛ den a ɛda ntetee ne adwumayɛ asetra ntam no mu, wɔ mfe kuw a sɛ wɔkyekyem pɛpɛɛpɛ a, wɔn dodow a wonni adwuma anaa adwumayɛfo a wɔn mfe akɔ anim mmɔho abien na wɔwɔ mmɔborohunu ase wɔ adwumawuranom a wɔde wɔn di dwuma wɔ asɛm a wɔka sɛ wɔbɛma wɔanya adwumayɛ mu osuahu mu Nea ɛto so abien no, wɔyɛ nyiyim tia wɔn esiane sɛ wɔyɛ mmea nti na ɛda adi sɛ wɔma wɔn nnwuma a akatua sua anaasɛ ɛnyɛ den."[24] "Nyiyim da so ara wɔ adanse mu kɛse na nhomasua ne ntetee nhyehyɛe titiriw a wɔde wɔn ani si mmabaa so no ho hia na ama wɔasan akari pɛ."[24] "Ɛwom sɛ mmabaa repaw nnwuma a ɛtaa yɛ ‘mmarima’ kɛse de, nanso wɔda so ara yɛ nea ɛboro so wɔ nnwuma a na mmea yɛ wɔ atetesɛm mu, te sɛ akyerɛwfo, ayarehwɛfo, na wonni ananmusifo pii wɔ nnwuma a asɛyɛde wom ne adwuma ahorow no mu."[24]

Wɔ adesua a edi kan mu no, mmarimaa ne mmeawa yɛ adwuma pɛpɛɛpɛ wɔ akontaabu ne nyansahu mu, nanso mmarimaa nya nkontaa a ɛkɔ soro wɔ akontaabu mu nhwehwɛmu a ɛkɔ akyiri te sɛ SAT kɔlege sɔhwɛ mu.[25] Mmabaa nso ntaa mfa wɔn ho nhyɛ adesuakuw mu nkɔmmɔbɔ mu na ɛnyɛ den koraa sɛ wɔbɛyɛ komm wɔ adesuadan mu[25]Ebinom gye di sɛ ɛsono sɛnea mmea susuw nneɛma ho na wosua ade wɔ mmarima ho. Belenky ne ne mfɛfoɔ (1986) yɛɛ nhwehwɛmu a ɛhunuu sɛ nimdeɛ ko a ɛyɛ anigyeɛ ma mmaa ne nimdeɛ a wɔkyerɛkyerɛ wɔ nwomasua asoɛeɛ dodoɔ no ara mu no nhyia.[25] Nhwehwɛmufo foforo, Gilligan (1982) hui sɛ nimdeɛ a ɛyɛ anigye ma mmea ne sɛ wodwen afoforo ho, abusuabɔ a ɛda wɔn ntam, na wɔte nka wɔ afoforo ahiade ho, bere a mmarima hui sɛ ntetewmu ne ankorankoro ho adwene yɛ anigye[25] Mmea de wɔn ho to afuw mu, anaasɛ wɔde wɔn ani si kuw so sen mmarima, a ebetumi akyerɛkyerɛ nea enti a wobetumi ahyia ɔhaw ahorow wɔ sukuu ahorow a wɔde ankorankoro adesua tebea di dwuma titiriw no mu[25] Sɛnea Teresa Rees hu no, wobetumi akyerɛkyerɛ nsonsonoe a ɛda mmea ntam wɔ akontaabu ne nyansahu mu no mu denam adwene a wɔmfa nsi ɔbarima ne ɔbea ntam abusuabɔ so wɔ nyansahu mu no so[26]

Ɛdefa nsonsonoe a ɛda mmarima ne mmea ntam wɔ adesua mu mmɔdenbɔ mu ho no, Buchmann, DiPrete, ne McDaniel ka sɛ nkɔso a egyina ɔbarima ne ɔbea nna so wɔ sɔhwɛ ahorow a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ mu no kyerɛ sɛ "mmarima mfaso a ɛrenya nkɔanim wɔ akontaabu mu nkontaahyɛde mu ne mmea mfaso a ɛrenya nkɔanim wɔ akenkan mu nkontaahyɛde mu bere a wɔrekɔ sukuu mu" no kɔ so.[27] Ceci, Williams ne Barnett nhwehwɛmu a ɛfa mmea a wɔnyɛ adwuma yiye wɔ nyansahu mu ho no hyɛ saa asɛm yi mu den denam ka a wɔka sɛ mmea nya "ahunahuna a ɛyɛ katee [a] esiw adwumayɛ nkae kwan" na nea efi mu ba ne sɛ wonya abasobɔde a ɛba fam wɔ sɔhwɛ ahorow a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ anaa akontaabu mu[28] Ne nyinaa mu no, Buchmann, DiPrete ne McDaniel ka sɛ atetesɛm mu mmarima ne mmea dwumadi ahorow a ɛso atew, a ɛka nsakrae pa a aba wɔ adwumayɛfo gua so a mprempren ɛma mmea nya "dibea ahorow a akatua pa wom wɔ adwumayɛ mu" no ho no betumi ayɛ nea ɛde mmea nhomasua mu nkɔanim kɛse aba nkɔso a wonya.

Mmarima a wonni ahotɔ[sesa]

Wɔ aman 51 mu no, mmeawa de wɔn din dɔɔso sen mmarimaa. Titiriw wɔ Latin Amerika no, wɔkyerɛ sɛ nsonsonoe no fi basabasayɛ akuw a agye din ne basabasayɛ a ɛtwetwe mmarima mmerante ne mmabaa. Basabasayɛ akuw no twe mmarima no ba mu, na ɛtwetwe wɔn adwene fi sukuu so na ɛma wogyae sukuu[22] Wɔ aman bi mu no, mmea a wɔkɔ ntoaso sukuu ne wɔn a wowie sukuu no dɔɔso sen mmarima de. Sɛ nhwɛsoɔ no, wɔ United States no, wɔde bachelor’s degrees dodoɔ 33% maa mmaa sene mmarima wɔ afe 2010–2011 mu[29] Wɔhwɛ kwan sɛ saa nsonsonoeɛ yi bɛkɔ soro akodu 37% wɔ afe 2021–2022 mu na ɛboro 50% ma masters ne associate degrees. Mmarima a wogyae sukuukɔ nso akɔ soro wɔ mfe no mu wɔ mmusuakuw nyinaa mu, titiriw wɔ Amerikafo a wɔyɛ abibifo mu. Wɔaboro nnipa dodow a wogyae ntoaso sukuu ne kɔlege sen mmusuakuw foforo biara wɔ mfe 30 a atwam no mu. Nhwehwɛmu dodow no ara hui sɛ mmarima titiriw na "wogyaw wɔn akyi" kɛse wɔ nhomasua mu esiane sɛ wowie sukuu a ɛkɔ soro, sɔhwɛ mu nkontaa a ɛba fam, ne abasobɔde a entumi nyɛ yiye nti. Wohui sɛ bere a mmarima nyin, titiriw fi mfe 9 kosi 17 no, ɛnyɛ den sɛ wɔbɛka sɛ "wɔn ho akokwaw" wɔ akenkan ne akontaabu mu sen mmeawa.

Mpɛn pii no, mmarima du mmofra sukuu a wonsiesiee wɔn ho koraa na wonsiesiee wɔn ho mma sukuu sen mmea. Eyi de nsonsonoe a ɛkɔ soro bere nyinaa kɔ mfinimfini ne ntoaso sukuu mu ba. Wɔ ɔman no mu no, mmarimaa 113 na wɔwɔ adesuakuw a ɛto so 9 mu wɔ mmeawa 100 biara mu, na wɔ mmarima a wɔyɛ abibifo a wɔyɛ Amerikafo mu no, mmarimaa 123 na wɔwɔ mmeawa 100 biara mu. Aman ahu sɛ afe a ɛto so 9 abɛyɛ mfe a wɔagyae sukuu kɛse no mu biako[30] Whitmire ne Bailey toaa wɔn nhwehwɛmu no so na wɔhwɛɛ sɛnea ebetumi aba sɛ nsonsonoe biara a ɛda mmarima ne mmea ntam betumi aba bere a mmarima ne mmea hyia gyinaesi a ɛne sɛ wobetumi akɔ kɔlege no. Ná mmea taa kɔ kɔlege na wonya bachelor’s degrees sen mmarima. Efi 1971 kosi bɛyɛ 1981 no, na mmea nni anigye pii na na wɔbɔ amanneɛ sɛ wɔanya bachelor’s degrees a ɛba fam. Nanso, efi 1981 no, mmarima akɔ animtiaabu kɛse, na nsonsonoe a ɛda mmarima ne mmea ntam no kɔ so yɛ kɛse[30]

Mmarimaa taa teɛ wɔn so sen mmeawa, na wɔtaa bu wɔn nso sɛ wɔn a wɔadi dɛm wɔ adesua mu[25] Mmarima a wɔn kɔla yɛ kɔkɔɔ, titiriw Afrikafo-Amerika mmarima, nya nteɛso ne bere a wɔde ma wɔn sɛ wɔmfa wɔn nkɔ adwuma mu no dodow kɛse. Wɔ afe 2012 mu no, wɔmaa abibifo-Amerika mmarima baanum biara mu biako kwan sɛ ɔnkɔ sukuu[31]

Wɔ Asia no, wɔhwɛ kwan sɛ mmarima na wɔbɛboa abusua no sika titiriw. Enti wɔn mu pii kɔ adwuma bere a wɔanyin wɔ nipadua mu akyi pɛɛ, a ɛkyerɛ sɛ wɔadi bɛyɛ mfe 15 kosi 17. Eyi ne mfe a ɛsɛ sɛ wonya ntoaso sukuu.

Mmarima nya abasobɔde a enye sen mmea a afe anaa ɔman a wɔyɛe wɔ adesua dodow no ara mu mfa ho[32] Wɔ U.S. no, ɛda adi sɛ mmea anya abodin krataa sen mmarima bere a wɔadi mfe 29 no.[33] Mmea sukuufo wie ntoaso sukuu wɔ dodow a ɛkɔ soro sen mmarima sukuufo. Wɔ U.S. wɔ afe 2003 mu no, sukuufo mmea ɔha biara mu 72 na wowiee sukuu, bere a sukuufo mmarima ɔha biara mu 65 na wowiee sukuu no. Nsonsonoe a ɛda mmarima ne mmea ntam wɔ adesuawie dodow mu no yɛ kɛse titiriw ma sukuufo a wɔyɛ kakraa bi[34] Mmarima nni hɔ pii wɔ sukuufo a wɔawie sukuu ne wɔn a wowie masters ne doctoral degrees yiye wɔ U.S[35] Nea wɔahyɛ ho nyansa sɛ ɛde ba no bi ne mmarimaa a wonni wɔn ho sohwɛ ho nimdeɛ a enye sen mmeawa na wɔte sukuu su ne ofie tebea ho nka kɛse sen mmeawa[36][37] Mmarimaa a wobu nhomasua sɛ ɛyɛ mmea de na wonni mmarima a wɔasua nhoma a wɔyɛ nhwɛsofo nso betumi aboa ma mmarima ntumi nwie kɔlege[38] Wɔakyerɛ sɛ mmarima sukuufo a wɔwɔ U.S. no nyɛ adwuma bɔne wɔ akenkan mu sɔhwɛ ahorow mu na wɔnkenkan ade pii sen wɔn mfɛfo mmea no fã bi fi mmarima a wɔyɛ apɔw-mu-teɛteɛ kɛse, wɔyɛ basabasa kɛse, wonni mmara so kɛse, ne esiane sɛ sukuu akenkan ho nhyehyɛe ahorow ne nea wɔn ani gye ho nhyia nti[39] Wɔasan nso akyerɛ sɛ akyerɛkyerɛfoɔ animhwɛ wɔ abasobɔdeɛ mu no betumi ayɛ mmarima a wɔnya abasobɔdeɛ mu a ɛkɔduru 21%[40] Nhwehwɛmu bi daa no adi sɛ mmarima a wonni sika wɔ nhomasua mu no mfa pɛyɛ a enni asetra ne sikasɛm mu kyɛfa a wonya mu no ho[41]

Race[sesa]

Wɔ United States no[sesa]

Wɔ afeha a ɛto so 18 mfiase mu hɔ no, wɔbaraa Afrikafo a wɔyɛ Amerikafo sukuufo ne Mexicofo a wɔyɛ Amerikafo sukuufo sɛ wɔnkɔ sukuu ahorow a aborɔfo sukuufo wom wɔ amantam dodow no ara mu. Eyi fi asɛnnibea asɛm a ɛne Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), a wosii gyinae wom sɛ wɔma nhomasua mmeae kwan ma wɔtetew sukuufo a wɔyɛ aborɔfo ne sukuufo a wɔn kɔla gu ahorow ntam bere tenten a wobu nhomasua mmeae no sɛ ɛyɛ pɛ no. Nhomasua mmeae anni ɔman no ahyɛde no akyi: nhwehwɛmu bi a ɛfa bere a efi 1890 kosi 1950 mu wɔ sika a osuani biara bɔ wɔ nkyerɛkyerɛ ho no daa no adi sɛ, sɛ wɔkyekyem pɛpɛɛpɛ a, sukuufo aborɔfo nyaa nhomasua ho ka a ɛboro wɔn mfɛfo Abibifo no so ɔha biara mu nkyem 17 kosi 70[42] Ɔman mmara mu asɛnnennen a edi kan a ɛfa saa nhomasua nhyehyɛe ahorow a wɔatew wɔn ho a ɛnyɛ pɛ yi ho no sii wɔ California – Mendez v. Westminster wɔ 1947 mu, na ɛno akyi no Brown v. Board of Education wɔ 1954. Gyinaesi a ɛkɔɔ so wɔ Brown v. Board of Education mu no maa aban no yii sukuu ahorow mu mpaapaemu fii mu mmara, nanso mfe du du pii nhomasua a ɛba fam, afie mu akatua a wɔayiyi afi aborɔfo ne nnipa a wɔn kɔla gu ahorow ntam, ne mmusuakuw mu ahonyade mu nsonsonoe ama nnipa a wɔn kɔla gu ahorow no ayɛ basaa. Sɛnea EdBuild amanneɛbɔ a efi afe 2019 kyerɛ no, sukuu mantam a ɛnyɛ aborɔfo no nya dɔla ɔpepepem 23 a ennu aborɔfo sukuu mantam, ɛwom mpo sɛ wɔsom asuafo dodow koro de. Sukuu mantam ahorow de wɔn ho to mpɔtam hɔ tow ahorow so kɛse, enti amansin a ɛwɔ aborɔfo mpɔtam a wɔtaa yɛ adefo kɛse no nya sika pii wɔ osuani biara mu sen amansin a wɔnyɛ aborɔfo: $13,908 ma osuani biara, bere a wɔde toto $11,682 ma osuani biara, sɛnea ɛte biara[43]

Nsonsonoe a ɛwɔ mmofra a wofi mmusuakuw ahorow mu no adesua mu nimdeɛ mu fi ase wɔ wɔn mmofraase. Sɛnea National Assessment of Educational Progress kyerɛ no, nsonsonoe bi aka [kyerɛ dodow] a ɛkyerɛ sɛ Abibifo ne Latino mmofra tumi da adwene mu nimdeɛ adi bere a wɔde toto wɔn mfɛfo Asiafo ne Aborɔfo ho no. Wɔ nsɛm a wɔde mae no mu no, Asiafo ne Aborɔfo mmofra ɔha biara mu nkyem 89 de tumi a wɔde te nsɛmfua a wɔakyerɛw ne nea wɔaka ase bere a Abibifo ne Latino mmofra ɔha biara mu nkyem 79 ne 78 pɛ na wotumi te nsɛmfua a wɔakyerɛw ne nea wɔaka ase sɛ su no bɛkɔ so akosi mfe 4–6 ase[44]

Abenfo [henanom?] gye di sɛ mmusuakuw mu nsonsonoe a ɛwɔ adesua mu nkɔso mu no hyɛ akuw atitiriw abiɛsa ase: awosu, amammerɛ, ne nhyehyɛe. Sɛ nhwɛso no, wɔ 1980 mfe no mu no, nnipa kakraa bi nyaa amammerɛ mu adeyɛ bi a wɔfrɛ no "suro a wosuro sɛ wɔbɛyɛ Whitefo"; na nnipa kakraa bi a wɔnyɛ Asiafo bɛkwati wɔn a wɔwɔ wɔn asetra mu akuw mu a wɔada nyansa a ɛkorɔn adi sen afoforo no ho fɛw. Wɔada no adi wɔ graph a ɛde agye din toto abasobɔde a ɛkɔ soro wɔ Abibifo, Latinofo, Aborɔfo, ne Asiafo mu a egyina nsɛm a efi National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health mu so a Asiafo ne Aborɔfo sukuufo agye din kɔɔ soro bere a wɔn abasobɔde kɔɔ soro no, efisɛ Abibifo ne Latino sukuufo agye din no bɛyɛ so tew bere a na abasobɔde ahorow bɛkɔ soro no[45]

Atubrafo tebea[sesa]

Atubrafoɔ abirabɔsɛm no ka sɛ "atubrafoɔ, a pɛyɛ a ɛnni hɔ ama wɔn ho atɔ wɔn no, bɛtumi de wɔn sintɔ adi dwuma sɛ adeɛ a ɛkanyan wɔn". Nhwehwɛmu bi a wɔyɛe wɔ New York kyerɛe sɛ mmofra a wofi atubrafo abusua mu no yɛ adwuma yiye sen wɔn mfɛfo sukuufo a wɔyɛ kurom hɔfo no. Abirabɔsɛm no kyerɛkyerɛ mu sɛ mmofra a wofi amannɔne anisɔ ma wonya nhomasua mu mfaso horow a ebia na wontumi nnya bere bi. Eyi nso, ma kwan ma wɔbɔ mmɔden pii na wonya nneɛma pa fi saa asuafo yi hɔ. Eyi nso daa adi wɔ Ɔman Nhomasua Bere Tenten Nhwehwɛmu a ɛkyerɛe sɛ mmofra a wofi amannɔne taa nya nkontaa a ɛkorɔn wɔ akontaabu ne nyansahu mu sɔhwɛ ahorow mu no mu. Wɔabɔ amanneɛ sɛ "na adanse a ɛkyerɛ sɛ atubrafo wɔ mfaso no mu yɛ den fii Asiafo atubrafo mmusua mu sen mmerante a wofi Latin Amerika", a ebia ɛde pɛyɛ a enni hɔ bi bɛba wɔ n'ankasa mu. Eyi betumi ayɛ soronko a egyina nsonsonoe a ɛda tebea horow a ɛwɔ hɔ ansa na wɔretu akɔtra baabi foforo ne nea ɛwɔ hɔ akyi no so.[46]

Wɔ afe 2010 mu no, nhwehwɛmufo a wofi Brown Sukuupɔn mu tintim nea efii mu bae wɔ sɛnea mmofra a wofi amannɔne renya nkɔso wɔ sukuu mu no ho. Wɔn nsɛm a wɔde baa awiei no bi ne sɛ mmofra a wofi atubrafo awo ntoatoaso a edi kan no da nsɛmmɔnedi ne nneyɛe bɔne a ɛba fam adi sen awo ntoatoaso a ɛboro saa. Eyi kyerɛ sɛ awo ntoatoaso a edi kan atubrafo mmofra taa fi ase wɔ mmofra a wɔwoo wɔn wɔ Amerika akyi wɔ sukuu mu, nanso wonya nkɔso ntɛmntɛm na wonya nkɔso a ɛkɔ soro wɔ adesua mu.[47] Wɔ U.S. no, ɛte sɛ nea mfɛfo atubrafo pii a wobenya no ma hokwan a sukuufo a wɔwoo wɔn wɔ U.S. wɔ sɛ wobewie ntoaso sukuu no yɛ kɛse. Titiriw no, atubrafo a wonni ahokokwaw pii no ne mfe pii a wɔde kɔ sukuu ne adesua mu nkɔso a awo ntoatoaso a ɛto so abiɛsa ne akyi sukuufo nya no wɔ abusuabɔ kɛse[48]

Nnipa susuw sɛ wɔde asetra mu nimdeɛ a ɛdɔɔso bɛma mmofra a wɔatu akɔtra mmeae foforo na ama wɔadi yiye. Ɛnyɛ bere nyinaa na eyi yɛ nokware efisɛ pii wɔ asetra mu sen sɛ wobɛfa ntoaso sukuu mu ara kwa. Amanaman Ntam Asuafo Dwumadibea Fekuw (ISSA) wɔ botae bi sɛ wɔbɛboa sukuufo a wɔwoo wɔn wɔ amannɔne no ma wɔadi yiye. Ɔkwan a wɔfa so yɛ eyi denam nhyehyɛe ahorow abien a wɔde ma wɔ sukuu nnɔnhwerew mu, a wobetumi ayɛ nsakrae ma ɛne sukuu biara ne ankorankoro biara ahyia no so. Wɔfrɛ saa nhyehyɛe ahorow yi The Career Readiness Program ne The College Readiness Program. Ɔkyerɛwfo Haowen Ge ka sɛ, "Efi bere a wofii ase wɔ afe 2019 mu no, nhyehyɛe abien no nyinaa adi yiye kɛse a ISSA asuafo 90% kɔ so yɛ adansedi nhyehyɛe, kɔlege ne/anaasɛ adwumayɛ ho ntetee."[49]

Esiane sɛ saa sukuufo yi afi ase rekyerɛw wɔn din wɔ nhomasua nhyehyɛe no mu nti, ɛnkyerɛ sɛ wɔbɛkɔ so atra hɔ. Sɛnea SOS Mmofra Nkuraase kyerɛ no, "nnipa ɔpepem 68 a wɔwɔ wiase nyinaa aguan afi wɔn afie esiane ntawntawdi, basabasayɛ anaa asiane nti. Mmofra na wɔboro saa dodow yi mu fã. Mmofra aguanfo hyia asiane ne asiane ahorow a ɛyɛ nwonwa – a nyarewa, aduan pa a wonnya nni, basabasayɛ, adwumayɛfo a wɔde wɔn di dwuma ka ho." ne nnipa a wɔtɔn wɔn."[50] Nkurɔfo guan fi wɔn afie esiane nhyehyɛe ahorow a ɛko tia atubrafo, a ɛma United States ɔman sukuu nhyehyɛe no yɛ kɛse nti. Ɔman nhwehwɛmu bi a efii mu bae kyerɛ sɛ "Adwumayɛfo a wɔwɔ nhwehwɛmu yi mu ɔha biara mu aduɔkron huu nneyɛe anaa nkate mu haw ahorow wɔ wɔn sukuufo a wofi amannɔne no mu. Na 4 biara mu 1 kae sɛ ɛtrɛw."[51] Eyi di adanse sɛ atubrafo ho nhyehyɛe ahorow a ɛwɔ United States mu no gye mmofra a wotu kɔtra mmeae foforo yi kɛse wɔ yɛn nhomasua nhyehyɛe no mu[52]

Latino sukuufo ne kɔlege ahosiesie[sesa]

Latinofo a wotu kɔtra mmeae foforo[sesa]

Wɔ United States no, Latinofo na nnipa dodow renya nkɔanim sen biara. Ɛde besi July 1, 2016 no, Latinofo yɛ U.S. nnipa ɔha biara mu nkyem 17.8, na ɛma wɔyɛ nnipa kakraa bi a wɔdɔɔso sen biara[53] Nnipa a wofi Latin Amerika tu kɔ United States esiane sɛ wontumi nnya ahotɔ nti, sɛ́ ɛyɛ sikasɛm mu ahotɔ anaa aguanfo. Wɔn kurom redi sikasɛm mu ahokyere ho dwuma anaasɛ ɛde ne ho ahyɛ ɔko mu. United States de Latin Amerika atubrafo a wotu kɔtra mmeae foforo no di dwuma yiye. Esiane sɛ wɔn mmara kwan so dibea no nyɛ papa nti, Amerika nnwumakuw de wɔn yɛ adwuma na wotua wɔn akatua a ɛba fam koraa[54] Ɛde besi afe 2013 no, na mmarima a wonni tumi krataa 87% ne mmea a wonni tumi krataa 57% yɛ U.S. sikasɛm fã.[55] Atubrafo di dwuma wɔ Latinofo a wotu kɔ United States no mu. Diaspora yɛ kuw biara a wɔpete fi wɔn mfitiase kurom[56]

New York Kuropɔn no kura Latinofo dodow a wɔdɔɔso. Latinofo bɛboro ɔpepem 2.4 na wɔte New York Kuropɔn mu, .[57] ne Latinofo dodow a ɛsen biara ne Puerto Ricofo a Dominicanfo di wɔn akyi.[57] Latinofo dodow bi boa ma wobu akontaabu a ɛkyerɛ sɛ anyɛ yiye koraa no, mmofra a wɔwoo wɔn wɔ United States no mu ɔpepem anan wɔ ɔwofo biako a ɔyɛ otubrafo[58] Mmofra a wofi atubrafo mu ne nnipa dodow a ɛrenya nkɔanim ntɛmntɛm sen biara wɔ United States. Mmofra baanan biara mu biako fi mmusua a wofi amannɔne mu[59]

Nwomasua[sesa]

Wɔ New York Kuropɔn mu no, Ɔmanpanyin De Balsio de 3-K for All adi dwuma, a abofra biara betumi akɔ mmofra a wonnya nkɔɔ sukuu bere a wadi mfe abiɛsa, a wontua hwee[60] Ɛwom sɛ mmofra nhomasua nyɛ nea wontua hwee mfi K-12 adesua mu de, nanso mmofra pii a wɔn awofo yɛ atubrafo no mfa mfitiase nhomasua mu mfaso horow no nyinaa nni dwuma. Mmofra a wofi ofie a anyɛ yiye koraa no ɔwofo biako a ɔyɛ otubrafo wom mu no, ntaa nkɔ mmofraberem anaa mmofra a wonnya nkɔɔ sukuu nhyehyɛe ahorow[58]

Kɔlege Ahosiesie[sesa]

Ahosiesie a wɔyɛ ma mmofra a wɔwoo wɔn wɔ Amerika a wofi awofo a wofi amannɔne a ɛfa Latinofo mpɔtam hɔ kɔ kɔlege no yɛ adeyɛ a emu yɛ den. Afe a ɛtɔ so mmienu no mfitiaseɛ kɔsi afe a ɛtɔ so mmienu wɔ ntoaso sukuu mu no yɛ ahosiesie ma kɔlege nhwehwɛmu ne akwammisa nhyehyɛeɛ. Sɛ aban mmoa a ɛfa kɔlege adesua te sɛ Sikasɛm mu Mmoa ne Taps ho a, awofoɔ anaa ɔhwɛfoɔ no ankasa ho nsɛm ho hia, ɛha na adwenem naayɛ ne akwanhwɛ da adi. Awofoɔ/ahwɛfoɔ a wɔfiri atubrafoɔ dodoɔ no ara nni ahwehwɛdeɛ dodoɔ no ara a wɔhwehwɛ ma akwammisa krataa no. Nea wɔde wɔn adwene si so ne sɛ wɔbɛkyerɛ ɔkwan a atubrafo ne wɔn mma a wɔwoo wɔn wɔ Amerika no yɛ adwuma twa nhomasua nhyehyɛe no ho hyia na ama wɔanya kɔlege nhomasua. Esiane Latinofo a wɔreba nti, ɛhɔ na Latino ntoaso sukuufo dodow a wɔawie no nso akɔ soro.[61] Latino sukuufo titiriw na wogyina hɔ ma wɔ mfe abien asoɛe ahorow mu sen sɛ wɔbɛyɛ mfe anan[61] Eyi betumi aba esiane nneɛma abien nti: ɛka a wɔtew so wɔ mfe abien asoɛe a wɔbɛkɔ ho anaasɛ sɛnea ɛbɛn fie no.[62] Mmabun nkumaa a wɔwɔ ɔpɛ sɛ wobenya nhomasua a ɛkɔ anim no ne anohyeto ahorow bi di asi esiane ɔwofo/ɔhwɛfo no ankasa nsɛm nti.[58]

Mmofra pii nni ɔman mmoa esiane sɛ awofo nni Borɔfo kasa yiye a ɛyɛ den sɛ wɔbɛhyehyɛ nkrataa anaa akwammisa nkrataa anaasɛ esiane suro a ɔwofo no suro sɛ ɔde ankorankoro nsɛm a ebetumi akyerɛ wɔn gyinabea bɛma ara kwa nti, adwene koro no ara fa Federal Student Aid ho. Federal Student Aid fi federal aban a ɛboa osuani bi ma otua kɔlege nhomasua ho ka wɔ akwan abiɛsa a ebetumi aba so, mmoa, adwuma-adesua, ne boseabɔ. Anamɔn baako a ɛwɔ Federal Aid akwammisa krataa no mu hwehwɛ sɛ ɔwofoɔ/ɔhwɛfoɔ baako anaa wɔn mmienu nyinaa ankasa ho nsɛm ne sikasɛm ho nsɛm nso. Eyi betumi asiw akwammisa krataa no a wɔbɛkɔ so ayɛ no ano esiane suro a wosuro sɛ wɔde ankorankoro ho nsɛm bɛma nti. Hokwan a ɛwɔ hɔ sɛ mmabun nkumaa bɛkɔ kɔlege no so tew bere a wɔamfa awofo ankasa ho nsɛm amma no. Mmabun nkumaa pii a wɔn awofo yɛ atubrafo no ka kuw ketewaa bi a sika a wonya no nnɔɔso sɛ wobetua kɔlege adesua anaasɛ wɔde mfɛntom atua bosea no ho. Adwene a ɛne sɛ kɔlege bo yɛ den kɛse no ma Latino sukuufo ntaa nkɔ sukuu afe anan anaasɛ ntoaso sukuu akyi mpo. Latinofoɔ bɛyɛ 50% nyaa sikasɛm mu mmoa wɔ afe 2003–2004 mu, nanso wɔda so ara yɛ nnipa kakraa bi a wɔnyaa aban abasobɔdeɛ a ɛba fam koraa.[63] Bio nso, wɔmfa bosea mma wɔn mpɛn pii.[63]

Sɔhwɛ ahorow a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ[sesa]

Wɔ sikasɛm a ɛho yɛ na akyi no, wɔhwehwɛ sɛ wɔyɛ sɔhwɛ ahorow a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ bere a wɔrehwehwɛ mfe anan akyi nhomasua sukuu no. Wɔ United States no, sɔhwɛ abien a wɔtaa yɛ ne SAT ne ACT. Latino asuafoɔ taa yɛ sɔhwɛ no, nanso ɛfiri afe 2011 kɔsi afe 2015 no, Latino asuafoɔ dodoɔ a wɔyɛ ACTs no akɔ soro 50%.[64]SATs deɛ, wɔ afe 2017 mu no, wɔhunuu sɛ wɔn a wɔyɛɛ sɔhwɛ no mu 24% yɛ Latino/Hispanic. Wɔ saa ɔha biara mu nkyem 31 pɛ na woduu kɔlege-ahosiesie ho gyinapɛn a wɔde yɛɛ sɔhwɛ no afã abien no nyinaa (ERW ne Math).[65]

Amerikafo Ankasa sukuufo ne nhomasua a ɛkɔ anim[sesa]

Sikasɛm mu nsonsonoe ne ananmusifo[sesa]

Sikasɛm mu nsonsonoe yɛ asɛm titiriw a Amerikafo Ankasa sukuufo hyia a ɛka wɔn a wɔde wɔn kɔ ohia kɛse ne nkuraase mfitiase ne ntoaso sukuu ahorow mu, na ɛde tebea horow a enye ba ma wonya nhomasua a ɛkɔ akyiri.[66]Saa ɔhaw yi mu yɛ den bio ne Amerikafoɔ Ankasa asuafoɔ a wɔnyɛ adwuma yie wɔ nhyehyɛeɛ a wɔwɔ akyɛdeɛ ne wɔn nimdeɛ mu, a sɛ wɔde toto wɔn mfɛfoɔ Aborɔfoɔ ho a, wɔn a wɔhunu wɔn no sua.[67] Nsɛm a wobetumi de adi dwuma a ɛho yɛ na a ɛfa Amerikafo Ankasa sukuufo ho wɔ nhyehyɛe a wɔde akyɛde ma mu no nso kyerɛ sɛnea nnipa dodow yi nkyerɛ yiye wɔ nhomasua mu nhwehwɛmu mu a ɛtrɛw[67] Wɔnam nhwehwɛmu a atipɛnfo ayɛ so ahwehwɛ saa asɛm yi mu kɛse, na wɔasi sɛnea abu so wɔ nhomanimfo nsɛm ahorow mu so dua. Smith ne ne mfɛfoɔ (2014) nhwehwɛmu no twee adwene sii Amerikafoɔ Ankasa asuafoɔ ananmusifoɔ wɔ STEM (Nyansahu, Mfiridwuma, Mfiridwuma, ne Nkontaabuo) nteɛsoɔ mu. Wɔn nhwehwɛmu no hunuu sɛ saa asuafoɔ yi nni STEM mfuo mu a ɛda nsow, na ɛboaa ma ankorankoro ne ɔmanfoɔ nyinaa mu sintɔ ba[68]

Amammerɛ mu gyinapɛn ahorow, nipasu, ne mmoa nhyehyɛe ahorow[sesa]

Nhumu foforɔ pue[editorializing] firi Smith ne ne mfɛfoɔ (2014) nhwehwɛmu no mu, a ɛtwe adwene si abusuabɔ a emu yɛ den a Amerikafoɔ Ankasa asuafoɔ bebree kura ne wɔn mmusuakuo amammerɛ ne mpɔtam, ne obuo kɛseɛ a wɔbu ma nwomasua adwinnadeɛ ho hia. Saa ade a wɔahu yi kyerɛ sɛ Amerikafo Ankasa sukuufo da su a ɛne sɛ wɔbɛpene ankorankoro botae ahorow so adi, a ɛyɛ agyapade a ebetumi aboa wɔn adesua ne adwumayɛ ho apɛde ahorow[68]Bio nso, wɔada no adi sɛ mmoa nhyehyɛe titiriw ahorow di nsɛnnennen a Amerikafo Ankasa sukuufo hyia no ho dwuma yiye. Saa nhyehyɛe ahorow yi ma amammerɛ mu nipasu nya nkɔso, ɛma wonya mpɔtam hɔfo ho adwene, na ɛtew nkɛntɛnso bɔne a mmusua mu nyiyim de ba sukuufo yi so no ase. Ɛnam sɛ wɔma wɔn a wɔyɛ wɔn dea kɔ soro na wɔtew abusuakuw/abusuakuw mu nkɔso mu nsonsonoe so no, saa nhyehyɛe ahorow yi di dwuma titiriw wɔ Amerikafo Ankasa asuafo adesua mu nkonimdi a wɔhyɛ wɔ STEM mfuw mu no mu.[68]

Amammerɛ mu nipasu ne adesua mu nkɔanim[sesa]

Jackson ne afoforo. (2003) yɛɛ nhwehwɛmu soronko bi a ɛhwehwɛɛ nneɛma a ɛma Amerikafo Ankasa kɔlegefo kɔ so kura adesua mu so nkɛntɛnso. Wɔn nhwehwɛmu no sii dwuma titiriw a ahotoso di wɔ adesua mu nkonimdi ne nsiyɛ mu so dua. Ahotoso ne ahokokwaw puei sɛ nneɛma atitiriw a ɛkanyan Amerikafo Ankasa asuafo a wɔrebɔ mmɔden sɛ wobenya adesua mu nkɔso.[69]Nhwehwɛmu no nso sii hia a ɛho hia sɛ wɔma Amerikafoɔ Ankasa amammerɛ wɔ nwomasua asoɛeɛ mu na wɔdi nsɛm a ɛfa mmusua mu nyiyim ho dwuma, ɛfiri sɛ saa nneɛma yi nya asuafoɔ no so nkɛntɛnsoɔ kɛseɛ wɔ sukuupɔn mu.[69]

Nsɛm a wobisabisaa Amerikafo Ankasa kɔlegefo a wodii yiye wɔ su pa mu no kyerɛɛ nsɛmti a ɛfa wɔn kɔlege a wɔkɔ so tra mu ho, a nea ɛka ho ne mmusua mu nyiyim a wobedi ho dwuma ne ahofadi ne ka a wɔka sie a wobenya no.[69] Wɔaka sɛ adesua mu nsiyɛ a enni Amerikafo Ankasa sukuufo mu no fi kɔlege ahorow a wɔantumi annye Amerikafo Ankasa amammerɛ ntom.[70] Bio nso, wɔahu sɛ ankorankoro osuahu a ɛfa mmusua mu nyiyim ho no nya Amerikafo Ankasa sukuufo a wɔkɔ so yɛ adesua a ɛkɔ akyiri no so nkɛntɛnso bɔne.[69]

Mfiase nhomasua mmusuakuw mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ[sesa]

Mmusuakuw mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ ka sukuufo fi wɔn mmofraase. Wɔde mmofra ntetee nhyehyɛe a ɛkorɔn a wɔfrɛ no ECE ma mmofra, de boa wɔn ma wɔhyɛn mmofra sukuu mu a wɔwɔ ntease pa wɔ sɛnea wobedi nkonim wɔ sukuu nyinaa mu. Nsonsonoe a ɛda nsow aba wɔ nhomasua pa mu, na wɔde mmofra a wonnya nkɔɔ sukuu adesua nhyehyɛe a entu mpɔn kɛse ama Abibifo anaa Hispanic akuw ahorow sen Aborɔfo akuw a wɔnyɛ Hispanicfo a wɔwɔ mmofra a wonnya nkɔɔ sukuu tebea mu no. Eyi ma Aborɔfo mmofra nya nhomasua a ɛkorɔn sen Abibifo anaa Hispanic mmofra. Mmofra a wɔyɛ aborɔfo taa hyɛn ECE nhyehyɛe ahorow a ɛkorɔn mu sen Abibifo anaa Hispanic mmofra, na wɔn a wotwa to no wɔ nhomasua nhyehyɛe ahorow a ne bo nyɛ den na entu mpɔn kɛse mu. Amerika Adwene ne Nneyɛe Ho Adesua Fekuw no kae sɛ "Nhwehwɛmu kyerɛ sɛ sɛ wɔde toto aborɔfo sukuufo ho a, ɛda adi sɛ wobegyae abibifo sukuufo anaasɛ wɔbɛpam wɔn, ɛnyɛ den sɛ wɔde wɔn bɛkɔ nhyehyɛe ahorow a wɔde akyɛde wom mu na wɔde wɔn akyerɛkyerɛfo hwɛ kwan a ɛba fam.[70]

Wɔ afe 2001–2004 mu no, aman du-baako yɛɛ nhwehwɛmu bi faa nsonsonoeɛ a ɛda nwomasua pa mu wɔ mmusuakuo ntam wɔ ECE nhyehyɛeɛ mu na wɔhunuu sɛ Abibifoɔ mmofra taa kɔ nhyehyɛeɛ a ɛba fam sen Aborɔfoɔ. Nhwehwɛmu bi a wɔyɛe wɔ Abibifoɔ mmofra a wɔkɔɔ mmofra sukuu mu wɔ afe 2016 mu no hunuu sɛ wɔadi akyire wɔ akontabuo ne Borɔfo kasa mu akɔsi asram akron, sɛ wɔde toto Aborɔfoɔ mmofra ho a. Wɔhwɛ kwan sɛ mmofra a wɔaka akyi wɔ mmofra sukuu mu no bɛtena akyi wɔ wɔn adwuma mu fã kɛse no ara mu.[71] Afe 2016 nhwehwɛmu no hunuu sɛ nsonsonoeɛ da so ara wɔ mmirikatuo ntam wɔ ECE nhyehyɛeɛ mu.[71]"Nea ɛyɛ nwonwa ne sɛ, asuafoɔ kakraa bi na wɔtumi de wɔn kɔ akyerɛkyerɛfoɔ a wɔtu mpɔn paa no mu bɛyɛ fã na ɛyɛ mmɔho mmienu sɛ wɔde wɔn kɔ akyerɛkyerɛfoɔ a wɔntu mpɔn kɛseɛ mu."[72] Ɛde besi afe 2016 no, Aborɔfoɔ mmofra 24% na wɔakyerɛw wɔn din wɔ mfitiaseɛ nwomasua a ɛkorɔn mu , bere a Abibifo mmofra 15% pɛ na wɔhyɛ saa kuw no mu. Sɔhwɛ ahorow a wɔyɛe wɔ afe 2016 mu no daa no adi sɛ sɛ Abibifo ne Hispanic mmofra kɔ mmofra sukuu a ɛkorɔn afe biako a, ɛkame ayɛ sɛ nsonsonoe a ɛda Engiresi kasa mu nhomasua mu, a ɛda wɔne Aborɔfo mmofra ntam no befi hɔ, na nsonsonoe a ɛwɔ akontaabu mu no so atew akodu bɛyɛ asram anum kɔ mmofra sukuu mu.[71]

Nkuraase ne nkurow akɛse mu nhomasua[sesa]

Nhyehyɛe mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ kɛse wɔ nkuraase ne nkurow akɛse mu nhomasua nhyehyɛe ahorow mu. Nsonsonoeɛ yi ho adesua, titire wɔ nkuraaseɛ no, yɛ foforɔ koraa na ɛda nsow wɔ nwomasua mu pɛyɛ a ɛnni hɔ ho adesua a ɛtwe adwene si ankorankoro so wɔ nwomasua nhyehyɛeɛ bi mu.

Nkuraase ne nkurow akɛse mu sukuufo a wɔwɔ United States no ntumi nyɛ adwuma yiye wɔ nhomasua mu bere a wɔde toto wɔn mfɛfo a wɔwɔ nkurow akyi no ho no. Nneɛma a ɛka saa adwumayɛ a ɛnkɔ yiye yi bi ne sikasɛm, adesuadan mu tebea, ne asuade ahorow a wɔkyerɛkyerɛ.[73] [74]Sukuufoɔ a wɔwɔ nkuropɔn mu ne nkuraaseɛ no taa tena afie a wɔn sikasɛm tebea nye mu na wɔkɔ sukuu a wɔn nneɛma sua sɛ wɔde toto nkuropɔn akyi sukuufoɔ ho a.[75] [76][77]Wɔada no nso adi sɛ wonni adwene a ɛnyɛ papa wɔ nhomasua ho a efi gyinapɛn ahorow a wokura wɔ wɔn mpɔtam ne mmusua mu a ɛfa sukuu, adwuma, ne nkonimdi ho.[74][75]

Sɛ wɔde toto nkuropɔn akyi sukuufoɔ ho a, nkuraaseɛ ne nkuropɔn mu asuafoɔ hyia nkɔsoɔ ho nsɛm a ɛte saa ara.[74]Ɔkyerɛkyerɛfo ne asuafo ntam nkitahodi, adesua ahorow a wɔkyerɛkyerɛ, ne nimdeɛ a ɛfa mpɔtam a atwa ho ahyia ho no ada no adi sɛ ɛyɛ nneɛma a ɛho hia a ɛboa ma wɔde siw sintɔ ahorow a wohyia wɔ nkurow akɛse mu ne nkurow akɛse mu sukuu ahorow mu no ano.[74][75]Nanso, nnipa a wogyae sukuukɔ no da so ara yɛ kɛse wɔ mpɔtam abien no nyinaa mu, efisɛ sukuufo kakraa bi a wɔtaa te mmeae yi, gyae ntoaso sukuu dodow a ɛdɔɔso kɛse.[74] Nhwehwɛmu bi a wɔyɛe wɔ kurow no mu, ntoaso sukuufo ho kyerɛe sɛ adesua mu ahokokwaw wɔ afe a edi kan mu no nya nkɛntɛnso pa wɔ adesuawie dodow so, a ɛkyerɛ sɛ sukuufo bi ntoaso sukuu mfiase betumi ayɛ nea ɛkyerɛ sɛnea wobedi yiye wɔ ntoaso sukuu mu ne sɛ ebia wɔbɛyɛ saa bɛwie sukuu.[78]Sɛ wonya nimdeɛ ne ntease a ɛfata wɔ nsɛm a asuafo yi hyia ho a, wobetumi adi sintɔ ahorow a wohyia no so.

Sɔhwɛ ahorow a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ[sesa]

Wɔtaa de sɔhwɛ ahorow a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ na ɛkyerɛ nea wɔatumi ayɛ wɔ United States. Nhwehwɛmu ada no adi sɛ mmɔdenbɔ a ɛba fam wɔ sɔhwɛ a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ mu no betumi anya nkɛntɛnso bɔne wɔ sika a sukuu no nya fi aban hɔ no so, na wɔada no adi sɛ asuafo a wonnya sika pii no nyɛ adwuma yiye wɔ sɔhwɛ a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ mu wɔ dodow a ɛkɔ soro sen wɔn mfɛfo.[79] [80]Nhwehwɛmu bi a ɛhwɛɛ sɛdeɛ sɔhwɛ mu nkɔsoɔ a ɛba fam no kaa sukuu ahodoɔ, hunuu sɛ sukuu a wɔyɛ adwuma a ɛba fam sen sɛdeɛ wɔtaa yɛ na ɛwɔ mmeaeɛ a wɔn sikasɛm sua no tumi hyia nsunsuansoɔ a ɛka sukuu sikasɛm ne nneɛma a wɔde yɛ adwuma.[81] Nhwehwɛmu no nso hunuu sɛ nneɛma a wɔkyerɛkyerɛ asuafoɔ no nya sɔhwɛ mu nkɔsoɔ so nkɛntɛnsoɔ, ɛfiri sɛ sukuu a wɔn sɔhwɛ mu nkontabuo sua no bɛtaa asesa wɔn adesua nhyehyɛeɛ de akyerɛkyerɛ akɔ sɔhwɛ no mu.[81]

Sukuu mu nneɛma a wɔde yɛ adwuma[sesa]

Saa ara nso na wiase mmeae bi wɔ nea wɔfrɛ no "amemene a ɛma nsu fi mu", anaasɛ ankorankoro a wɔwɔ sika, ahokokwaw, ne wɔn a wɔasua nhoma a wɔahwere wɔn ne wɔn mmusua akɔ aman afoforo so denam atubrafo, nkuraase ne kurow no mu mmeae a ɛwɔ United States no so osuahu . Amemene no mu nsu a ɛkɔ nkurow nketewa mu mmeae ahorow.[82][77] Wɔada no adi sɛ nnipa betumi afi nkuraase bere a wɔn nhomasua kɔ soro na ɛnyɛ den koraa bere a wɔn mfe kɔ anim no.[82] Nkurow akɛse mu mmeae a ɛwɔ nkurow akɛse mu no ayɛ nea wɔde ahyɛ amansin nsa fi 1950 mfe no mu, na wɔahwere wɔn nnipa kapital. Saa nnipa kapital a wɔretu yi ma ahiafoɔ ne wɔn a wɔn ho nni asɛm nko ara na wɔka ho ma wɔboa sukuu sika a ɛde sukuu nhyehyɛeɛ a ɛwɔ ahodeɛ kakraa bi ne sikasɛm mu ahokyere ba.[[77]

Amerika aban sukuu nhyehyɛe no yɛ nea ahonyade dodow a ɛwɔ sukuu mantam mu no na ɛkyerɛ sukuu no su efisɛ sukuu ahorow no yɛ nea wɔde sika titiriw na ɛma sukuu ahorow no nya sika.[83] Bere a sika a sukuu nhyehyɛe no de ma no so tew no, wɔhyɛ wɔn ma wɔyɛ pii wɔ kakraa bi mu. Eyi taa ma asuafo no faculty ratios so tew na ɛma adesuakuw no dodow kɔ soro. Wɔhyɛ sukuu pii nso ma wɔtew sika a wɔde ma adwinni ne ahonyade nhyehyɛe ahorow a ebia ɛho hia kɛse ma adesua mu nkonimdi so. Bio nso, sɛ sikasɛm nhyehyɛe so tew a, adesua titiriw ne adesua a ɛkɔ anim a wobenya ama asuafo a wɔda tumi a ɛkorɔn adi no taa so tew. Nea efi sikasɛm mu ahokyere mu ba a ɛnyɛ nea ɛda adi pefee ne sɛ ɛyɛ den sɛ wɔbɛtwetwe akyerɛkyerɛfo ne adwumayɛfo foforo, titiriw wɔn a wɔwɔ osuahu no.[77] Sɛnea asɛm bi a wɔkyerɛwee wɔ The Washington Post mu kyerɛ no, wɔbɔ amanneɛ sɛ asuafo no reyɛ sɔhwɛ ahorow 112 a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ wɔ K-12 mu a sɔhwɛ ahorow a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ sen biara wɔ adesuakuw biara mu yɛ adesuakuw a ɛto so du a sɛ wɔkyekyem pɛpɛɛpɛ a, wɔyɛ sɔhwɛ ahorow 11 a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ wɔ sukuu afe biako mu.[84] Eyi bɛyɛɛ ɔhaw kɛse araa ma wɔ afe 2015 ne 2016 mu no, Nhomasua Dwumadibea no de dwumadi nhyehyɛe ahorow a ɛbɛma sɔhwɛ ahorow a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ a wobetumi de ama no so atew na ɛde adesua bere ɔha biara mu nkyem a wobetumi de ama sɔhwɛ ahorow a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ no to 2% so no so tew . . Saa sɔhwɛ dodow yi da so ara dɔɔso sen aman afoforo te sɛ Finland a sɔhwɛ ahorow a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ no sua nanso ɛda so ara sua koraa sen aman afoforo te sɛ South Korea a ɛnyɛ sɛ ɛwɔ sɔhwɛ a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ kɛse nko na mmom wobu no nso sɛ ɛyɛ katee kɛse.

Abusua mu nneɛma .[sesa]

Wɔada no adi sɛ abusua no asetra mu sikasɛm tebea ne osuani no adesua mu nkɔso ne nea onya nyinaa wɔ abusuabɔ kɛse. "Sika a ɛba fam ma sukuufo a wɔwɔ kurow no mu no bɛyɛ dɔla 14,000 afe biara ne dɔla 10,000 afe biara ma wɔn a wɔte mmeae a ɛwɔ hɔ no mmusua sɛ wɔde toto mmusua a wɔwɔ nkurow nketewa mu mmeae a wonya sika no ho a."[76][82]

Yehu sɛ wɔreyi mmeawa pii afi sukuu mu wɔ Asia Kesee Fam sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a wɔbɛma wɔn mmusua anya nkɔso denam adwuma so. Akontaabu a ɛyɛ hu ne sɛ mmofra a wɔwɔ Asia Kesee Fam no mu bɛboro 12% de wɔn ho hyɛ mmofra adwuma mu" (UNICEF).[85]Awerɛhosɛm ne sɛ, yehu sɛ mmofra pii nni sukuu na wonsuaa nhoma nanso wɔreyɛ adwuma de anya sika de asan akɔ wɔn mmusua mu.Eyi. nso yɛ segway a ɛkɔ mmofra nkoasom a ɛrekɔ soro ne nna mu aguadi mu wɔ Asia. Nhomasua mu nneɛma.

Sika nso betumi anya nkɛntɛnso wɔ sɛ ebia abofra bi bewie ntoaso sukuu anaa. Wɔ data a NCES de ma mu no, wɔkyerɛe sɛ asuafoɔ 20% a wɔbu wɔn sɛ wɔn sikasɛm tebea sua ansa na wɔakɔ adesuawieɛ berɛ a asuafoɔ a wɔn sikasɛm yɛ mfimfini 5% pɛ na wɔbɛgyae sukuu. na 3% pɛ na na asuafoɔ a wɔn sikasɛm kɔ soro no gyae sukuu[86]

Nea ɛsen saa no, mmusua a ɛwɔ nkurow nketewa mu no betumi atua sika de asɛe sika wɔ wɔn mma nhomasua ho wɔ akwan horow te sɛ ankorankoro sukuu ahorow, ankorankoro adesua, ofie adesua, ne nhomasua ho nneɛma te sɛ kɔmputa, nhoma, nhomasua agode, ɔyɛkyerɛ, ne nhoma ahorow a wobenya no so.[77]. Wɔkyerɛ sɛ mmofra a wofi mmusua a wodi hia mu no nya SAT nkontaa a ɛba fam a ɛkame ayɛ sɛ nsonsonoe yɛ 400 bere a wɔde mmusua a wonya afe afe sika a wonya no yɛ dɔla 40,000 toto mmusua a afe afe sika a wonya no yɛ dɔla 200,000 ho no.[87]

Mmusua a wɔwɔ nkurow nketewa mu nso taa tumi de asetra mu kapital kɛse ma wɔn mma, te sɛ "English a ɛfata" a wɔde di dwuma kɛse, agoru ne tete nneɛma akorae a wɔda no adi, ne nnwom, asaw, ne dwumadi afoforo a ɛtete saa a wonim no yiye. Nea ɛsen saa mpo no, ɛda adi sɛ kurow no mu sukuufo fi afie a awofo biako na wɔwɔ mu no mu na nkuraase sukuufo taa nya anuanom sen wɔn atipɛnfo a wɔwɔ kurow no akyi no ma sika a wɔde bɛto mu wɔ abofra biara a wɔn mmusua betumi atɔ no so tew. Wɔfrɛ saa adwene yi sɛ nneɛma a wɔde yɛ adwuma a ɛyɛ mmerɛw a ɛkyerɛ sɛ mmusua wɔ nneɛma a ɛwɔ anohyeto, te sɛ bere, ahoɔden, ne sika. Sɛ sibship (anuanom dodow) kɔ soro a, nneɛma a wɔde ma abofra biara no yɛ mmerɛw[77][88]

Wɔ kɔlege no, abusua no ahode ho hia kɛse mpo. Wɔ nhwehwɛmu bi a National Center for Education Statistics yɛe mu no, wɔkae sɛ sukuufo no betumi akɔ kɔlege kɛse wɔ mfe 3 a wɔde afi ntoaso sukuu mu no mu denam adwene a wosusuwii sɛ wɔn abusua betumi aboa no wɔ sika fam ara kwa so.Nhwehwɛmu koro no ara bisaa kuw kɛse bi a wɔyɛ adesuakuw a ɛto so du-baako asuafo . Sɛ wɔpɛ sɛ wɔkɔ kɔlege na asuafoɔ 32% gye toom sɛ sɛ wɔgye wɔn tom mpo a, wɔrenkɔ ɛfiri sɛ wɔn abusua no rentumi ntɔ[89]

Abusua gyinapɛn ahorow .[sesa]

Sika a abusua bi de hyɛ wɔn ba nhomasua mu no da bo a ɔwofo no de to nhomasua so no adi kɛse. Botae a ɛwɔ nhomasua so no yɛ ɔwofo no nhomasua gyinabea ne nhomasua mu mfaso a ɛwɔ so wɔ mpɔtam a abusua no te mu no nyinaa.

Mmusua a wɔwɔ nkurow akɛse mu no taa nya awofo a wɔwɔ nhomasua a ɛdɔɔso sen mmusua a wɔwɔ nkuraase ne nkurow akɛse mu. Eyi ma awofo a wɔwɔ nkurow nketewa mu nya wɔn ankasa osuahu wɔ nhomasua mu mfaso ho ne nhomasua nhyehyɛe ne akwan horow a wonim no yiye nso. Nea ɛka ho no, awofo betumi de wɔn ankasa amammerɛ mu sika ahyɛ wɔn mma mu na wɔde akɔma wɔn mma denam wɔn a wɔde wɔn bɛkɔ tete nneɛma akorae, wɔakyerɛw wɔn din wɔ adesua akyi, anaasɛ mpo wɔanya nhomasua mu nneɛma wɔ fie hɔ no so. Nea ɛne eyi bɔ abira no, awofo a wofi nkuraase ne nkurow akɛse mu no ntaa nnya nhomasua pii na wɔn ankasa suahu pii wɔ wɔn sanba ho. Mmeae a wɔte no nso mfa nhomasua ho mfaso kɛse biara mma na ɛtew nea ɛkanyan wɔn ma wonya no so. Eyi ma mmusua a wobetumi atua sika de ahode kɛse ahyɛ wɔn mma nhomasua mu a ɛnyɛ.[77]

Nhomasua a ɛwɔ akyɛde ne nea ɛwɔ talente .[sesa]

Asuafoɔ a wɔyɛ aborɔfoɔ a wɔakyerɛw wɔn din sɛ wɔwɔ akyɛdeɛ ne wɔn a wɔn ho yɛ den no ɔha mu nkyekyɛmu a ɛnsɛ wɔ hɔ sɛ wɔde toto asuafoɔ a wɔba fam, a wɔyɛ kakraa bi ho.[25] Saa ara nso na Asia Amerika adesuafo no agyina hɔ dodo wɔ akyɛde nhomasua nhyehyɛe ahorow mu.[90] Wɔ afe 1992 mu no, na Amerikafoɔ a wɔyɛ abibifoɔ nni akyɛdeɛ nwomasua ho gyinabea a ɛboro so 41%, Hispanic Amerikafoɔ asuafoɔ so ate 42%, na Amerika Indiafoɔ so ate 50%. Nea ɛne no bɔ abira no, wɔde aborɔfo sukuufo gyinaa hɔ boroo so wɔ akyɛde nhomasua nhyehyɛe ahorow mu 17% na wɔde Asia Amerikafo sukuufo kakraa bi a wɔyɛ kakraa bi din too wɔn so sɛ wɔwɔ akyɛde ne wɔn a wɔwɔ nimdeɛ, nanso nhwehwɛmu kyerɛ sɛ nkɔso mu nsonsonoe a ɛrenya nkɔanim wɔ aborɔfo sukuufo ne sukuufo a wɔnyɛ Asiafo a wɔn kɔla yɛ kɔkɔɔ ntam. Nsonsonoe a ɛrenya nkɔanim nso wɔ asuafo a wɔwɔ akyɛde a wofi mmusua a wonnya sika pii mu ne wɔn a wonya sika pii mu ntam[91]

Nneɛma a ɛma Afrika-Amerika, Hispanic-Amerika, ne Amerika-India sukuufo a wɔwɔ nhyehyɛe ahorow a wɔwɔ akyɛde ne wɔn a wɔwɔ nimdeɛ mu no nkyerɛ wɔn yiye no betumi akyerɛkyerɛ mu denam nsɛm a ɛfa nnipa a wɔfa wɔn adwuma mu/nhwehwɛmu ne wɔn a wobehu wɔn ho so;[90] ne adwumayɛfo ho nsɛm Aman dodow no ara de nkɔso ne aptitude sɔhwɛ a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ di dwuma, a sukuufo kakraa bi na wɔwɔ abakɔsɛm a ɛkyerɛ sɛ wɔnyɛ adwuma yiye, de hwehwɛ asuafo a wɔwɔ akyɛde ne wɔn a wɔwɔ nimdeɛ mu na wohu wɔn. Akyinnyegye a ɛtia sɔhwɛ a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ no kyerɛ sɛ ɛyɛ amammerɛ mu animhwɛ, ɛma asuafo a wɔyɛ aborɔfo ani gye ho, ɛhwehwɛ sɛ wɔyɛ Borɔfo kasa yiye, na ebetumi anya amammerɛ mu nkate wɔ ɔkwan a wɔfa so yɛ ne sɛnea wɔde kyerɛ no ho.[90] Ɛdefa adwumayɛfoɔ ho nsɛm ho no, aman aduanan nsia de akyerɛkyerɛfoɔ din a wɔde bɛma wɔn no di dwuma, nanso akyerɛkyerɛfoɔ bebree ntete wɔn ho wɔ asuafoɔ a wɔwɔ akyɛdeɛ a wɔbɛhunu anaa wɔbɛkyerɛkyerɛ wɔn. Akyerɛkyerɛfo nso taa nya akwanhwɛ a ɛba fam wɔ sukuufo kakraa bi ho, sɛ wɔkyerɛ sɛ wɔwɔ akyɛde mpo a. 45 Aman ma kwan ma wɔyi awofoɔ din, nanso ɔkwan a wɔfa so yi wɔn din no nyɛ atenka ma amammerɛ mu nsonsonoeɛ na awofoɔ kakraa bi bɛtumi anya ɔhaw wɔ ɔkwan a wɔfa so yɛ no ase. Aman aduanan abien ma kwan ma wɔpaw wɔn ho, nanso sukuufo kakraa bi taa nyi wɔn ho din esiane asetra mu nkate mu nsakrae te sɛ atipɛnfo nhyɛso anaasɛ wɔte nka sɛ wɔn atipɛnfo atew wɔn ho anaasɛ wɔapow wɔn nti.[90]Bio nso, wɔkyerɛ sɛ sukuufo binom wɔ akyɛde ne wɔn a wɔwɔ nimdeɛ esiane sɛ wɔwɔ awofo a wɔwɔ nimdeɛ, amammui mu nimdeɛ, ne tumi a wɔde hwehwɛ sɛ sukuu ahorow no de wɔn ba no bɛto hɔ sɛ ɔwɔ akyɛde na ɔwɔ nimdeɛ nti. Enti, wɔn ba no de nkyerɛkyerɛ soronko ne ahonyade a wɔde ma no.[25]

Nhomasua Titiriw .[sesa]

Wɔ ɔbarima ne ɔbea ntam abusuabɔ a ɛnkari pɛ wɔ nhomasua a ɛkɔ so wɔ ɔkwan a ɛfata so akyi no, asuafo a wɔwɔ "ahiade titiriw" no yɛ nhomasua mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ no fã foforo. Ansa na 1975 reba no Nhomasua a Wɔde Ma Mmofra a Wɔadi M dɛm Mmara (mprempren wɔfrɛ no Ankorankoro a Wɔadi M dɛm Nhomasua Mmara (IDEA)) no, na mmofra a wɔwɔ ahiade soronko bɛyɛ ɔpepem 2 nnyaa ɔmanfo nhomasua a ɛfata. Wɔn a wɔwɔ adesua nhyehyɛe no mu no, wɔtew pii so kɔɔ nkyerɛkyerɛ a ɛba fam, tebea horow a atew ne ho, anaasɛ mpo woyii fii sukuu adan mu koraa na wotu fii wɔn atipɛnfo mu.[92] Mmara yi a wɔpenee so no sesaa sukuufo ɔpepem pii a wɔwɔ ahiade soronko no asetra wɔ ɔkwan a etu mpɔn so, na ɛhwɛ hui sɛ wobenya ɔmanfo nhomasua ho nhyehyɛe ne nnwuma a ɛfata a wontua hwee. Na bere a wɔn a wonya mfaso fi saa adesua mu nsu yi a wɔdannan mu no wɔ hɔ no, sukuufo pii da so ara wɔ hɔ (a wɔn mu dodow no ara yɛ nnipa kakraa bi a wɔadi dɛm) a wohu wɔn ho wɔ bere a wɔresua ade mu esiane sɛ wɔkyekyɛ sika a wɔde ma wɔ nhomasua soronko mu a ɛnkari pɛ nti.

Wɔ 1998 mu no, wɔde mmofra kakraa bi ɔpepem 1.5 a wɔwɔ adesua ahiade titiriw bi too gua wɔ U.S., na saa 876,000 no mu yɛ Amerikafo a wɔyɛ abibifo anaa Amerikafo Ankasa. Ná wɔka sɛ Afrika Amerikafo sukuufo no mmɔho abiɛsa na wɔka sɛ wɔyɛ ahiade soronko sen Caucasianfo de no. Asuafo a wɔn baanu nyinaa yɛ nhomasua titiriw ho adesuafo ne nnipa kakraa bi no hyia hokwan a ɛnyɛ pɛ sɛ wobenya nhomasua pa a wɔde bedi wɔn ankasa ahiade ho dwuma. Nhomasua titiriw a wɔde kɔma nkurɔfo no, wɔ nsɛm dodow no ara mu no, wɔ nhomasua a ɛkɔ akyiri ho ɔkyerɛkyerɛfo no nsam no, eyi yɛ nea ɛfa obi ankasa ho na esiane nsonsonoe nti, wobetumi abu wɔn ani agu dɛmdi so anaasɛ wɔrennye ntom. Akyerɛkyerɛfo a wɔantete wɔn yiye wɔ sukuu nketewa mu, sukuu mu abusuabɔ a enye, ne awofo ne akyerɛkyerɛfo ntam abusuabɔ a enye di dwuma wɔ saa pɛyɛ a enni hɔ yi mu. Wɔ saa nneɛma yi mu no, sukuufo kakraa bi na wɔwɔ ɔhaw mu efisɛ wɔmma wɔn nneɛma a ɛfata a ɛno nso bɛboa wɔn nhomasua ahiade ahorow.[92]

U.S. Nhomasua Dwumadibea ho nsɛm kyerɛ sɛ wɔ afe 2000–2001 mu no, anyɛ yiye koraa no, amantam 13 daa Afrikafo-Amerikafo sukuufo a wɔakyerɛw wɔn din wɔ aban sukuu ahorow mu no bɛboro 2.75% adi a wɔde "adwene mu ntini a ɛyɛ mmerɛw" din too so. Saa bere no na ɔman no mu dodow a Caucasianfo de moniker koro no ara ahyɛ wɔn agyirae no baa mu wɔ 0.75%. Saa berɛ yi mu no, ankorankoro man biara ankɔ soro bɛboro 2.32% wɔ Caucasian asuafoɔ a wɔwɔ ahiadeɛ soronko.[92]

U.S. Nhomasua Dwumadibea ho nsɛm kyerɛ sɛ wɔ afe 2000–2001 mu no, anyɛ yiye koraa no, amantam 13 daa Afrikafo-Amerikafo sukuufo a wɔakyerɛw wɔn din wɔ aban sukuu ahorow mu no bɛboro 2.75% adi a wɔde "adwene mu ntini a ɛyɛ mmerɛw" din too so. Saa bere no na ɔman no mu dodow a Caucasianfo de moniker koro no ara ahyɛ wɔn agyirae no baa mu wɔ 0.75%. Saa berɛ yi mu no, ankorankoro man biara ankɔ soro bɛboro 2.32% wɔ Caucasian asuafoɔ a wɔwɔ ahiadeɛ soronko.[92]

Sɛnea Tom Parrish, nhwehwɛmu ho nhwehwɛmufo panyin bi a ɔwɔ Amerika Asoɛe a Ɛhwɛ Nhwehwɛmu So kyerɛ no, ɛda adi sɛ wɔbɛka sɛ Afrikafo mmofra a wɔyɛ Afrikafo mmofra no yɛ “adwene mu a ɛyɛ mmerɛw" mpɛn 2.88, na wɔka sɛ wɔka sɛ wɔyɛ nnipa a wɔn nkate mu haw wɔn sen Caucasian mmofra no mpɛn 1.92. Wɔde nsɛm a wɔaboaboa ano afi U.S. Nhomasua Dwumadibea hɔ na ebuu saa nsɛm yi ho akontaa.[92]

Nhwehwɛmufo Edward Fierros ne James Conroy, wɔ wɔn nhwehwɛmu a wɔyɛe wɔ ɔmantam no mu nsɛm a ɛfa asɛm a ɛfa nnipa kakraa bi a wɔtra so ho no, akyerɛ sɛ ebia aman pii di mfomso wɔ wɔn mprempren nsusuwii ahorow no ho na ebia nneɛma kakraa bi a egyina nnipa kakraa bi so no ahintaw wɔ dodow no mu. Sɛnea Ankorankoro a Wɔadi M dɛm Mmara no kyerɛ no, asuafo a wɔwɔ ahiade soronko no wɔ hokwan sɛ wonya nneɛma ne mmoa a ɛma wodi wɔn ankorankoro ahiade ho dwuma no, ɛnsɛ sɛ wɔtew wɔn ho fi wɔn atipɛnfo ho ara kwa anaasɛ mfaso a ɛwɔ nhomasua a ɛkɔ akyiri so. Nanso, sɛnea Fierros ne Conroy kyerɛ no, sɛ wɔka mmofra kakraa bi te sɛ Amerikafo a wɔyɛ abibifo ne Latinofo ho asɛm pɛ sɛ sukuufo a wɔwɔ ahiade soronko a, ɛnyɛ den koraa sɛ wɔde wɔn bɛto mmeae a wɔde adesua ka ho na mpɛn pii no, wɔmfa ayaresa a wɔpɛ no nyinaa mma wɔn wɔ ne nyinaa mu.[92]

Nhomasua mu nhyɛso ho abakɔsɛm .[sesa]

United States[sesa]

Abakɔsɛm mu abusuabɔ a ɛwɔ United States a ɛda mpɔtam a wɔwɔ hokwan ne wɔn a wɔato wɔn hintidua ntam no di dwuma titiriw wɔ nhomasua a ɛnyɛ pɛ na ɛnyɛ papa a wɔde di dwuma ma mpɔtam a asetra mu nneɛma nnim yi mu. Gyidi a ɛne sɛ na mpɔtam bi a ɛwɔ United States no sua sen afoforo no ama saa sintɔ ahorow yi akɔ so ayɛ kɛse akɔ nhomasua mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ kɛse a yehu sɛ ɛda adi nnɛ no mu.

Wɔ Amerikafo a wɔyɛ abibifo fam no, nhomasua nhyehyɛe a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ ho nhyɛso fi nkoasom mu, titiriw wɔ 1740. Wɔ 1740 mu no, North Carolina hyehyɛɛ mmara a ɛbaraa nkoayɛ. Bere a mfitiase mmarahyɛ bagua no baraa Amerikafo a wɔyɛ abibifo sɛ wɔnkyerɛkyerɛ sɛnea wɔbɛkyerɛw no, bere a aman afoforo gyee wɔn ankasa mmara no nkyerɛase ahorow toom no, Kesee Fam mmarahyɛ bagua ahorow a wɔsɔre tia akenkan ne akyerɛw no baraa nea ɛsen nkyerɛwee ara kwa koraa. Kesee Fam mmara ahorow a egu ahorow no baraa Amerikafo a wɔyɛ abibifo sɛ wonsua sɛnea wɔbɛkenkan, wɔbɛkyerɛw, na wɔanhyiam a nkoa wuranom nni hɔ. Aman pii kɔ akyiri kosi sɛ ɛbɛhwehwɛ sɛ Amerikafo a wɔyɛ abibifo a wɔde wɔn ho no fi hɔ esiane sɛ wosuro sɛ wɔbɛkyerɛkyerɛ wɔn nuanom a wɔyɛ nkoa no nti. Eduu 1836 no, wɔbaraa Afrikafo-Amerikafo nyinaa ɔmanfo nhomasua koraa.

Amerikafo a wɔyɛ abibifo a wɔde wɔn yɛɛ nkoa no yii nhomasua a wonya no fii hɔ awo ntoatoaso pii.[93] Bere a wɔhyehyɛɛ mmara kwan so a wobeyi nkoasom afi hɔ no, na mmusuakuw mu animtiaabu da so ara wɔ hɔ[12]. Ná asetra, sikasɛm, ne amammuisɛm mu akwanside ahorow no kura abibifo wɔ dibea a ɛne sɛ wɔbɛhyɛ wɔn ase mu. Ɛwom sɛ na Amerikafo a wɔyɛ abibifo wɔ mmara kwan so no tumi sua sɛnea wɔkenkan ade na wɔkyerɛw de, nanso na wɔtaa bara wɔn sɛ wɔne sukuufo a wɔyɛ aborɔfo nkɔ sukuu ahorow. Wɔtaa frɛ saa mpaapaemu yi sɛ de jure mpaapaemu.[94] Ná sukuu ahorow a ɛma Afrikafo-Amerika sukuufo tumi kɔ hɔ no ntaa nnya sika fam mmoa, na ɛnam so ma wɔn asuafo no nya nhomasua ho nimdeɛ a ɛfata. Freedmen sukuu ahorow no wɔ hɔ nanso wɔde wɔn adwene sii Amerikafo a wɔyɛ abibifo a wɔbɛkɔ so akura wɔn mu wɔ nkoasom mu, na ɛnyɛ sɛ wɔbɛma nhomasua mu yiyedi ayɛ kɛse. [93]Afei United States nyaa mmara kwan so mpaapaemu wɔ sukuu ahorow a ɛda aborɔfo ne abibifo ntam no mu. Ná ɛsɛ sɛ sukuu ahorow nya nneɛma a ɛyɛ pɛ nanso na pɛyɛ a enni hɔ a akyinnye biara nni ho wɔ hɔ. Ɛyɛ 1968 mu ansa na Abibifo sukuufo a wɔwɔ Kesee Fam no nyaa amansan nyinaa ntoaso sukuu. [93]Nhwehwɛmu da no adi sɛ na pɛyɛ a enni hɔ no so atew wɔ mmusuakuw mu akuw ntam fi 1970 kosi 1988, nanso efi saa bere no, nsonsonoe no akɔ soro bio.[93][1]

Latinofo ne Amerika Indiafo nyaa nhomasua mu nhyɛso a ɛte saa ara wɔ bere a atwam no mu, na ɛno da adi mprempren. Wɔato Latinofo mu wɔ nhyehyɛe kwan so afi nhomasua hokwan ahorow a ɛwɔ gyinabea ahorow nyinaa mu. Adanse kyerɛ sɛ Latinofo anya nhomasua mu nhyɛso yi mu osuahu wɔ United States tɔnn koraa wɔ 1848[93]. Ɛmfa ho sɛ ɛyɛ nea mmara mma ho kwan sɛ wogyina wɔn abusuakuw, wɔn som, anaa wɔn abusuakuw so nnye sukuufo ntom no, wɔ United States anafo fam atɔe no, na Latinofo taa yɛ wɔn a wonnye ntom . Wɔatetew mu denam sukuu ne ɔman mpanyimfo a wɔhyɛɛ da yɛɛ adwuma no so. Wɔfrɛ saa mpaapaemu kwan yi sɛ de facto mpaapaemu.[95] Amerika Indiafo nyaa asɛmpatrɛw sukuu ahorow a wosii so dua sɛ wɔde wɔn ho bɛhyɛ aborɔfo amammerɛ ne ɔmanfo mu no so. Wɔ "nkonimdi" a wɔde wɔn ho bɔɔ wɔn ho akyi mpo no, saa Amerika Indiafo no nyaa nyiyim wɔ aborɔfo asetra mu na mpɛn pii no wɔn abusuakuw no pow wɔn.[93] Ɛbɔɔ kuw bi a sɛ wonya nhomasua a ɛyɛ pɛ mpo a, na wontumi nnya so mfaso ankasa.

Wɔatew Amerika sukuupɔn ahorow mu akuwakuw ahorow, a ahyehyɛde kakraa bi te sɛ Ivy League sukuu ahorow, a ɛyɛ soronko koraa sen afoforo no. Wɔ saa asoɛe ahorow a ɛyɛ soronko yi mu no, nhomasua mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ no yɛ nea ɛtra so, na wɔn asuafo no mu 6% ne 3% pɛ na wofi sika a wonya fi sika abien a ɛba fam no mu.[96]

Akadeɛ[sesa]

Nneɛma a wobenya no di dwuma titiriw wɔ nhomasua mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ mu. Wɔ nneɛma a efi abusua a yɛadi kan aka ho asɛm no akyi no, aduan pa ne akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe a ɛfata nya mmofra adwene mu nkɔso so nkɛntɛnso[13]. Mmofra a wofi mmusua a wodi hia mu no nya saa pɛyɛ a enni hɔ yi mu osuahu, na ɛma wɔyɛ ade hunu fi mfiase. Ɛnyɛ sɛ ɛho hia nko ara ne nneɛma a asuafo betumi anya afi abusua hɔ anaasɛ wɔrennya, na mmom sukuu ahorow no ankasa gu ahorow kɛse wɔ nneɛma a wɔde ma wɔn asuafo no mu. Wɔ December 2, 2011 no, U.S. Nhomasua Dwumadibea no yii no adi sɛ sukuu mantam ahorow no kyekyɛ sika a ɛnyɛ pɛpɛɛpɛ, a ɛnyɛ nea ɛfata sɛ wonya sika a wɔde boa sukuufo a wonnya sika pii[97]. Eyi resiw sika a efi sukuu ahorow a wohia mmoa kɛse no mu no ano. Sukuu ahorow a wodi hia kɛse no wɔ akyerɛkyerɛfo a wɔn ho nyɛ den pii a wɔn dodow kɔ soro kɛse[3]. Wɔ adesua biara mu no, ɛda adi sɛ asuafo a wɔwɔ ohia kɛse sukuu ahorow mu no bɛkyerɛkyerɛ wɔn a akyerɛkyerɛfo a wonni kumaa mpo kyerɛkyerɛ wɔn wɔ wɔn adesua mu no sen asuafo afoforo.[7]

Nneɛma a ɛyɛ papa ma kwan ma wɔtew adesuadan mu kɛse so, a nhwehwɛmu ada no adi sɛ ɛma sɔhwɛ mu nkontaahyɛde tu mpɔn.[13]Ɛsan nso ma sukuu ne ahohuru bere mu nhyehyɛe ahorow a wɔyɛ no yɛ kɛse—eyinom so wɔ mfaso kɛse ma mmofra a wodi hia efisɛ ɛnyɛ sɛ ɛko tia ahokokwaw a ɛkɔ soro wɔ awɔw bere mu nko na mmom ɛmma wɔmfi mpɔtam a ahobammɔ nni mu na ɛko tia wɔn a wogyae sukuukɔ no. [13]Nsonsonoe nso wɔ adesua ahorow a wɔde ma asuafo no mu, titiriw akontaabu ne nyansahu adesua a ɛkɔ akyiri. Wɔ afe 2012 mu no, wɔde Algebra II maa sukuu ahodoɔ no mu 82% (wɔ amansin ahodoɔ mu) a wɔsom Hispanicfoɔ ne Abibifoɔ-Amerika asuafoɔ kakraa bi, berɛ a sukuu no mu 65% pɛ na wɔsom Abibifoɔ-Amerika ne Hispanic adesuafoɔ paa no maa asuafoɔ no adesua korɔ no ara. Wɔde abɔdeɛ mu nneɛma ho nimdeɛ maa sukuu ahodoɔ no mu 66% a ɛsom Hispanicfoɔ ne Abibifoɔ-Amerika asuafoɔ kakraa bi, sɛ wɔde toto 40% a wɔsom kɛseɛ ho a. Wɔde Calculus maa sukuu ahorow no mu 55% a wɔsom Hispanicfo ne Afrikafo sukuufo kakraa bi, sɛ wɔde toto 29% a wɔsom kɛse ho a.[31]

Saa nneɛma a wonnya nni yi ne mmusuakuw ne abusuakuw wɔ abusuabɔ tẽẽ. Abibifoɔ ne Latinofoɔ asuafoɔ taa yɛ aborɔfoɔ mprɛnsa sɛ wɔyɛ sukuu a ɛhia paa na ɛda adi sɛ wɔ sukuu a ahiafoɔ titire na wɔdi hia mu[3]. Afei nso, wɔ sukuu ahorow a ɛyɛ nnipa kakraa bi 90% anaa nea ɛboro saa mu no, akyerɛkyerɛfo no fã biako pɛ na wɔama wɔn adansedi wɔ adesua ahorow a wɔkyerɛkyerɛ no mu[7]. Bere a sukuufo a wɔyɛ aborɔfo dodow kɔ soro wɔ sukuu bi mu no, sika a wɔde ma no taa kɔ soro nso. [93]Sɛ wɔkyekyem pɛpɛɛpɛ a, akyerɛkyerɛfo a wɔwɔ mfitiase sukuu ahorow a wɔsom Hispanicfo ne Afrikafo sukuufo a wɔdɔɔso sen biara no tua $2250 afe biara sen wɔn mfɛfo a wɔwɔ ɔmantam koro no ara mu a wɔyɛ adwuma wɔ sukuu ahorow a ɛsom Hispanicfo ne Afrikafo sukuufo kakraa bi no mu[31]. Efi abusua ahode fã no, mmofra a wɔyɛ aborɔfo 10% na wodi hia wɔ ohia mu, bere a Latino mmofra 37% yɛ na Afrika Amerikafo mmofra 42% yɛ.[13] Nhwehwɛmu kyerɛ sɛ sɛ nneɛma a wɔde di dwuma no yɛ pɛ a, ɛda adi sɛ abibifo sukuufo bɛkɔ so akɔ kɔlege sen wɔn mfɛfo aborɔfo. [98]

Ɔman ntawntawdi ahorow .[sesa]

Wɔ aman a ɛyɛ mmerɛw mu no, mmofra betumi anya nhomasua a ɛfata. Wogye di sɛ nhomasua pa a enye wɔ aman yi mu no fi nsɛnnennen atitiriw anan. Saa nsɛnnennen yi bi ne nkitahodi mu nsonsonoe a ɛda aban dwumadifo ntam, nhyehyɛeyɛfo no ade titiriw a ɛho hia wɔ nhomasua ho nhyehyɛe mu, sika a wɔde ma kakraa bi, ne nhomasua mu su a enni hɔ .[99]

Nsusuwii .[sesa]

Wɔ mfeɛ du a atwam no mu no, wɔayɛ sɔhwɛ ahodoɔ wɔ wiase nyinaa de aboaboa nsɛm a ɛfa asuafoɔ, sukuu a wɔkɔ, ne wɔn nwomasua mu nkɔsoɔ ano. Saa nsɔhwɛ yi bi ne Ahyehyɛdeɛ a ɛhwɛ Sikasɛm mu Nkitahodiɛ ne Nkɔsoɔ Nhyehyɛeɛ a ɛfa Amanaman Ntam Asuafoɔ Nhwehwɛmu ho ne Amanaman Ntam Fekuo a ɛhwɛ Nhomasua mu Nkɔsoɔ a ɛrekɔ so wɔ Amanaman Ntam Nkontaabuo ne Nyansahu Adesua mu. Sɛ yɛbɛbu sɔhwɛ nsusuiɛ ahodoɔ a ɛwɔ ɔman biara mu no ho akontaa na yɛabu akontaa a ɛyɛ pɛpɛɛpɛ a, wɔde sɔhwɛ yi mu nkontabuo no fa adeɛ mmuaeɛ nsusuiɛ nhwɛsoɔ so. Sɛ wɔyɛ gyinapɛn wie a, nhwehwɛmufo betumi afi ase ahwɛ nhomasua denam ade a wotumi yɛ so sen sɛ wɔbɛhwɛ nea wobetumi anya so. Ɛdenam nkɔso a wɔhwɛ so no, nhwehwɛmufo no betumi ahwehwɛ nhomasua mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ wɔ wiase nyinaa no mu wɔ ɔkwan a ɛfata so.[100]

Sɛ yɛde nkɔsoɔ a wɔde di dwuma no to nkyɛn a, nhwehwɛmufoɔ tumi de akwan foforɔ kakraa bi di dwuma, a nea ɛka ho ne nanso ɛnyɛ nea ɛka Living Standard Measurement Study ne Regional Education Advantage index no ho. China de IREA no dii dwuma sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a wɔbɛte ɔmantam mu nsonsonoe ase yiye fi Apuei fam kosi Atɔe fam wɔ wɔn man mu wɔ mfe abiɛsa mu bere a Albania hwɛɛ afie ankorankoro sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a wɔbɛte wɔn nhomasua mu nsonsonoe ase yiye.

Albania Nhomasua mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ ho adesua .[sesa]

Wɔ mmɔdenbɔ mu sɛ wɔbɛte ofie yiyedi ase yiye no, Wiase Sikakorabea Ahyehyɛde no ayɛ nhyehyɛe a wɔde susuw nneɛma a ɛwɔ hɔ a ɛboa ma wɔyɛ ohia wɔ aman a afei na wɔrenya nkɔso mu na ɛma wotumi de di dwuma wɔ nhwehwɛmu ahorow a wɔde wɔn ho hyɛ mu ho nhwehwɛmu ahorow mu. Nhwehwɛmu bi a Nathalie Picard ne Francois Wolff yɛe wɔ Albania no de LSMS nhyehyɛe no dii dwuma de maa wɔn adesua no kɔɔ anim wɔ nhomasua a enni hɔ wɔ Albania mu. Wɔ nsɛm a wɔde too gua a efi LSMS nhwɛso ahorow no mu no, Picard ne Wolff tumi de akwan a wɔde wɔn ho ahyɛ mu dii dwuma de huu sɛ ɛkame ayɛ sɛ nhomasua mu nsonsonoe a ɛwɔ ɔman no mu no mu 40% fi mmusua mu nsonsonoe a ɛda mmusua ntam[101]. LSMS nhyehyeɛ no yɛ ofie ne ankorankoro yiedie ho nsɛmmisa a ɛsɔ Aban no yiedie tebea hwɛ. Wobetumi ahwɛ mpɔtam ahorow ho nsɛm wɔ wɔn ɔmanfo wɛbsaet so[102]. Wɔ nhwehwɛmu no mu no, nsɛmmisa a ɛfa nhomasua mu nsɛm ho a ɛboa nhwehwɛmu kuw no ma wɔde ofie ɔman ne ɔmantam no bata nhomasua a ɛwɔ hɔ dedaw no ho yiye. Ɛnam Albania nhwehwɛmu no so no, Picard ne Wolff tumi de saa akontabuo yi dii dwuma de boaa nkyerɛkyerɛ gyinabea a ɛwɔ afie ahodoɔ ne sika a wɔnya wɔ Albania ahodoɔ ntam. Wobetumi de saa adeyɛ yi adi dwuma wɔ mmeae pii wɔ wiase nyinaa.

China mantam nhomasua mu pɛyɛ ho adesua .[sesa]

China de index bi a wɔfrɛ no Index of Regional Education Advantage anaa IREA kaa ho de boaa ma wɔhwehwɛɛ nkɛntɛnso a nhyehyɛe foforo nyae wɔ wɔn aman nhomasua nhyehyɛe so wɔ wɔn mpɔtam ahorow nyinaa mu. Saa afã horow pii nkyerɛkyerɛmu yi ka nsusuwii ahorow a ɛkorɔn a ɛkɔ soro sen Gini nkyerɛkyerɛmu a ɛfa nhomasua ho na enti ɛde ntease kɛse ba wɔ nsonsonoe a ɛwɔ nhomasua mu no ho. Sɛ wɔde nsiesiei, wɔn a wɔkyerɛw wɔn din, ne wɔn a wonya wɔ nhomasua nhyehyɛe no mu no gyinapɛn atitiriw abiɛsa a wɔde IREA index no di dwuma no tumi de tumi a wɔde ayɛ adwuma de hwehwɛ wɔn mpɔtam ahorow no nhomasua mu dodow di dwuma[103]. Esiane sɛ abiɛsa no nyinaa nyɛ nsakrae ahorow a ɛde ne ho nti ɛho hia sɛ wode nneɛma te sɛ geometric kyerɛ bere a worebu akontaa te sɛ nkyerɛwde ne nea wonya no. Esiane sɛ IREA no yɛ composite summary index nti wɔtaa de di dwuma de kyerɛ sɛ nneɛma a wɔde kyerɛ ade no ho hia wɔ botae titiriw biara ho[103]. Bere a wɔresusuw mpɔtam ahorow no nkontaa a wɔawie no ho no, China yɛɛ ahunmu nhyehyɛe mfonini ahorow a ɛwɔ nsɛm a wɔde too gua wɔ mfe abiɛsa mu de kyerɛɛ nsakrae biara wɔ bere a ɛbata ho no mu. Nkonimdi no ma wohu ɔmantam no mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ wɔ wɔn nhomasua mu no ho mfonini. Nsakrae a ɛbae wɔ kɔla a ɛyɛ sum mu no kyerɛe sɛ nhomasua no mu ayɛ den wɔ nkontaahyɛde mu. Saa IREA nkontabuo a ɛkɔ akyiri yi da tebea ankasa a ɛwɔ beaeɛ a wɔreka ho asɛm no

adi.[103]

Nsunsuanso .[sesa]

Asetra mu Nkɔmmɔbɔ .[sesa]

Asetra mu nkɔso kyerɛ kuw a ɛwɔ adesuakuw mu gyinabea fi awo ntoatoaso biako mu kɔ foforo mu. Ɛne "Rags to Riches" adwene a ɛne sɛ obiara, a ɔyɛ adwumaden ne ne bo a wasi no wɔ abusuabɔ no wɔ abusuabɔ a obetumi akɔ soro ɛmfa ho sɛ ofi akyi ba biara. Nanso, nea ɛne saa adwene no bɔ abira no, asetra ho animdefo ne sikasɛm ho abenfo aka sɛ ɛwom sɛ wɔate nsɛm a ɛka ho de, nanso asetra mu nkɔso akɔ so ayɛ nea enni hɔ na ɛso atew mpo wɔ mfe aduasa a atwam no mu[104]. Efi 1979 kosi 2007 no, akatua a wonya ma ɔman mma a wɔba fam ne mfinimfini no anya nkɔanim a ennu ɔha biara mu nkyem 17 bere a ɔha biara mu biako no anya nkɔanim bɛyɛ ɔha biara mu nkyem 156 a ɛne "akyi bere no mu bere a ɛkɔɔ soro kosii 1970 mfe no mu bere a na sika a wonya no mu nkɔanim no trɛw" no bɔ abira kɛse.[105]

Ebia asetra mu nkɔso a ɛso tew no bi bɛkyerɛkyerɛ mu denam nhomasua nhyehyɛe a ɛwɔ ntoatoaso no so. Nhwehwɛmu ada no adi sɛ efi 1973 no, mmarima ne mmea a anyɛ yiye koraa no wɔwɔ kɔlege abodin krataa no anya dɔnhwerew biara akatua a ɛkɔ soro, bere a wɔn a wonni kɔlege abodin krataa no akatua akɔ so atra hɔ anaasɛ ɛso atew wɔ bere koro no ara mu.[106] Esiane sɛ nhomasua nhyehyɛe no hyɛ mmusua a wonnya sika pii no ma wɔde wɔn mma kɔ sukuu nhyehyɛe a ɛnyɛ nea ɛfata mu nti, mpɛn pii no, wɔmfa hokwan ne nhomasua mu nkannyan mma saa mmofra no te sɛ nea asuafo a wofi mmusua a wodi yiye mu no, na ɛde awo ntoatoaso ntam nkitahodi a wɔyɛ no mpɛn pii no ho nhwɛso ahorow ba . Nhomasua a wɔpaw ma ɔwofo ne abofra, a wɔsan frɛ no asetra mu nkɔso a ɛso atew anaasɛ ɛyɛ gyinabea.[104]

Ayaresa .[sesa]

Mmɔden ahorow bi wɔ hɔ a aman ahorow bɔ sɛ wɔbɛboa ma wɔanya nhomasua pa a wobenya ama mmofra nyinaa.

Nkarihwɛ[sesa]

UNESCO ne Center for Universal Education a ɛwɔ Brookings Institution no gyina nsɛm a efi ankorankoro bɛboro 1,700 a wɔwɔ aman 118 mu a ɛwɔ Brookings Institution a ɛwɔ Brookings Institution no so no abom ayɛ adesua. [107]Adwumakuo no botaeɛ ne sɛ wɔbɛdane adwene no afiri kwan a wɔfa so nya kwan no so akɔ adesua so.[107] Wɔnam nhwehwɛmu so hunuu, wɔbɛtumi asusu adesua ne nkɔsoɔ a asuafoɔ a wɔwɔ aman ankorankoro mu nya. [107]Ɛdenam sɔhwɛ no so no, aban ahorow betumi asusuw wɔn nhomasua nhyehyɛe ahorow no ho, asiesie mmeae a ehia sɛ wɔyɛ no yiye no, na awiei koraa no, wɔn suani no nkonimdi no akɔ soro.[107]

Nhomasua ma adeyɛ nyinaa .[sesa]

Nhomasua a wɔde ma wɔ adeyɛ anaa EFA nyinaa ho no yɛ wiase nyinaa botae a ɛbɛma mmofra, mmabun, ne mpanyimfo nyinaa anya mfitiase nhomasua a ɛfata. Wɔ afe 2000 mu no, aban ahorow 164 hyɛɛ bɔ sɛ wobenya nhomasua ama obiara wɔ Wiase Nhomasua Nhyiam no ase. Botaeɛ nsia a wɔasi gyinaeɛ a wɔayɛ sɛ wɔde bɛduru nwomasua botaeɛ ho ama obiara wɔ afe 2015. Nnwumakuw a wɔbom yɛ adwuma de du saa botaeɛ yi ho no bi ne aban, aman ahodoɔ ne nkɔsoɔ adwumakuo, ɔmanfoɔ, ne ankorankoro nnwuma. UNESCO na ɛhwɛ nkitahodi ahorow no so. Ɛwom sɛ wɔanya nkɔso de, nanso aman binom de mmoa pii rema sen afoforo. Afei nso, ɛho hia sɛ wɔhyɛ amammui mu ahofama nyinaa mu den na wɔhyɛ nneɛma a wohia no mu den.[108]

Wiase Nyinaa Nkɔmmɔbɔ a Ɛfa Nhomasua Ho .[sesa]

Wiase nyinaa fekubɔ a ɛfa nhomasua ho, anaa GPE, yɛ adwuma de yɛ wiase nyinaa mmɔdenbɔ a ɛbɛma nhomasua mu pɛyɛ a enni hɔ no so atew a wɔde wɔn adwene besi aman a wodi hia sen biara no so. GPE nko ara ne amanaman ntam mmɔdenbɔ a ɛde n’adwene si so titiriw sɛ ɛbɛboa aman no mmɔdenbɔ a wɔde bɛkyerɛkyerɛ wɔn mmabun a wofi mfitiase sukuu mu denam ntoaso sukuu so. Botae titiriw a ɛwɔ fekubɔ no mu ne sɛ wɔbɛma abofra biara anya nhomasua mu kwan, ahwɛ ahu sɛ abofra biara wuranom wɔ akontaabu ne akenkan ne akyerɛw ho nimdeɛ titiriw, tumi a aban ahorow no tumi ma obiara nya nhomasua a ɛfata, na ɛma mmofra nyinaa sua ade wɔ hɔ. Aman a wɔde mmoa ma ne aman a afei na wɔrenya nkɔso no fekubɔ nanso aman a afei na wɔrenya nkɔso no gyina wɔn ankasa nneɛma a ɛho hia so na ɛhyehyɛ wɔn ankasa nhomasua ho nhyehyɛe. Sɛ wɔreyɛ saa nneɛma a ɛho hia yi a, GPE boa ma ɛboa na ɛma ɛyɛ mmerɛw sɛ wobenya sikasɛm ne mfiridwuma ho nneɛma. GPE nkonimdie no bi ne sɛ wɔbɛboa mmofra ɔpepem 22 ma wɔakɔ sukuu, asiesie adesuadan 52,600, na wɔatete akyerɛkyerɛfoɔ 300,000.[109]

Adesua akɛse a ɛwɔ intanɛt so .[sesa]

Nsakraeɛ a ɛrekɔ so wɔ hɔ a ɛfiri atetesɛm mu sukuupɔn asoɛeɛ so kɔ Open Online Courses (MOOC) a ɛbue so. Wɔnam nsɛm a wɔde kyɛ, video, intanɛt so nhyiam ahorow, ne sɔhwɛ ahorow so na ɛkɔ saa adesua ahorow yi so. MOOCs no wɔ ahofadi a ɛma asuafo pii nya kyɛfa wɔ adesua ahorow no mu, nanso, nhyehyɛe ahorow no yɛ nea wiase nyinaa Atifi aman na ɛyɛ, enti esiw ankorankoro a wɔwɔ wiase nyinaa Kesee Fam kwan sɛ wɔnyɛ wɔn ankasa nneɛma foforo.[110]

Nhomasua a ɛfa adwenemhaw ho .[sesa]

Nhomasua a ɛfa adwenemhaw ho yɛ adekyerɛ kwan a ɛgye nkɛntɛnso a mmofraberem osuahu ahorow a enye (ACE) nya wɔ abofra adesua ne ne nneyɛe so no tom. Wɔasua sɛnea akwan a wɔfa so yɛ ade a ɛma obi ho dwiriw no no tumi yɛ adwuma yiye wɔ mmeae ahorow, a mpɔtam a ɛwɔ mmeae a wɔahu abɔde mu asiane ahorow, amumɔyɛsɛm anaa amammui mu basabasayɛ, aguanfo anaa guankɔbea tebea ho adesuafo, ne sukuufo a wɔto wɔn hintidua esiane kasa, mmusuakuw mu nti ka ho anaasɛ amammerɛ. ACES ne sukuu a wɔnkɔ yiye wɔ sukuu mu, nhomasua mu nkɔso, ne adwenemyare a enye koraa a efi mu ba no wɔ abusuabɔ[111]. Wɔafrɛ nhomasua a ɛfa adwenemhaw ho a ɛfa asetra mu atɛntrenee ho a nhomanimfo binom hia esiane nkɛntɛnso a ɛnsɛ a mmofraberem adwenemhaw nya wɔ mpɔtam a wɔato wɔn hintidua so a mpɔtam a wonnya sika pii, mpɔtam a wɔn kɔla gu ahorow, nna ne bɔbeasu kakraa bi, ne atubrafo ka ho nti.[112]

Abusua akyigyina[sesa]

Nsɛm a wɔde gyinaa so[sesa]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Williams, Belinda, ed. Closing the Achievement Gap: A Vision for Changing Beliefs and Practices. 2nd ed. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2003.
  2. ↑ York, Rankin, & Gibson, Travis T., Susan & Charles (2015). "Defining and Measuring Academic Success". Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation. 20 (5, March 2015).
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Lee, Chungmei; Gary Orfield (2005). "Why Segregation Matters: Poverty and Educational Inequality". The Civil Rights Project. Harvard University: 1–47.
  4. ↑ Majumdar, Manabi, and Jos Mooij. "Education and Inequality in India: A Classroom View. Routledge Contemporary South Asia Series." Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 1 Jan. 2011. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED523241&site=ehost-live&scope=site
  5. ↑ "Barriers to Education in Southeast Asia: Children Are Being Taught in a Language They Don't Speak." Action Education SEA, https://web.archive.org/web/20230331171319/https://action-education.org/sea/barriers-to-education-in-southeast-asia-children-are-being-taught-in-a-language-they-dont-speak/
  6. ↑ Rueckert, Phineas (August 13, 2019). "10 Barriers to Education That Children Living in Poverty Face". Global Citizen. Retrieved March 4, 2024.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Haycock, Kafi (2001). "Closing the Achievement Gap". Helping All Students Achieve. 58: 6–11.
  8. ↑ Shrivastava, Meenal; Shrivastava, Sanjiv (June 2014). "Political economy of higher education: comparing South Africa to trends in the world". Higher Education. 67 (6): 809–822. doi:10.1007/s10734-013-9709-6. S2CID 143772365.
  9. ↑ "Learning Poverty". World Bank. Retrieved 15 July 2021.
  10. ↑ Ferreira, Francisco; Gignoux, Jeremie (2014). "The Measurement of Educational Inequality: Achievement and Opportunity". World Bank Economic Review. 28 (2): 210–246. doi:10.1093/wber/lht004. hdl:10986/23539. S2CID 9797693.
  11. ↑ Gamoran, Adam (2001). "American Schooling and Educational Inequality: A Forecast for the 21st Century". Sociology of Education. 74: 135–153. doi:10.2307/2673258. JSTOR 2673258. S2CID 55336675.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 Gamoran, Adam (2001). "American Schooling and Educational Inequality: A Forecast for the 21st Century". Sociology of Education. 74: 135–153. doi:10.2307/2673258. JSTOR 2673258. S2CID 55336675.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 Greenstone, Michael; et al. (2011). "Improving Student Outcomes: Restoring America's Education Potential". The Hamilton Project. Strategy Paper: 1–30.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Farkas, George (2006). "How Educational Inequality Develops". National Poverty Center. Working Paper Series: 1–50.
  15. ↑ Nachbauer, Max (2024). "How schools affect equity in education: Teaching factors and extended day programs associated with average achievement and socioeconomic achievement gaps". Studies in Educational Evaluation. 82: 2. doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2024.101367.
  16. ↑ Nachbauer, Max (2023). Die Effekte von Schule auf Leistungsentwicklung und Leistungsunterschiede nach sozialer Herkunft. Eine Längsschnittstudie zu Ursachen von und Maßnahmen gegen Bildungsungleichheiten. Waxmann. pp. 51–57. doi:10.31244/9783830997320.
  17. ↑ "Women and Girls Education". United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 25 April 2013. Retrieved 4 November 2014.
  18. ↑ Ekine, Adefunke; Samati, Madalo; Walker, Judith-Ann. "Improving Learning Opportunities and Outcomes for Girls in Africa" (PDF). Brookings Institution. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
  19. ↑ Haridarshan, Pooja. "Voices of Women within the Devanga Community, Bangalore, India." Education Sciences, vol. 11, Jan. 2021. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1314616&site=ehost-live&scope=site
  20. ↑ Játiva, Ximena, and Michelle Mills. "What Does SEA-PLM 2019 Tell Us about Child Well-Being and Learning in Six Southeast Asian Countries?" UNICEF Office of Research - Innocenti, UNICEF Office of Research - Innocenti, 1 Jan. 2022. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED624436&site=ehost-live&scope=site
  21. ↑ Okonkowo, Ejike (Dec 2013). "Attitude towards Gender Equality in South-eastern Nigerian Culture: Impact of Gender and Level of Education". Gender & Behavior. 11 (2): 5579–5585.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Winthrop, Rebecca; McGivney, Eileen (22 September 2014). "Girls' Education Hotspots: A look at the Data". Brookings Institution. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
  23. ↑ "Child marriage". www.unicef.org. Retrieved 2023-01-25.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 Sharma, Geeta. "Gender inequality in education and employment". Archived from the original on 31 October 2008. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 25.6 25.7 Banks, James (2013). "1". Multicultural Education: Issues and Perspectives. John Wiley & Sons.
  26. ↑ Rees, Teresa (2001). "Mainstreaming Gender Equality in Science in the European Union: The 'ETAN Report'". Gender and Education. 13 (3): 243–260. doi:10.1080/09540250120063544. ISSN 0954-0253. S2CID 145405873.
  27. ↑ Buchmann, Claudia; DiPrete, Thomas A.; McDaniel, Anne (2008). "Gender Inequalities in Education". Annual Review of Sociology. 34 (1): 319–337. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.34.040507.134719. ISSN 0360-0572.
  28. ↑ Ceci, Stephen J.; Williams, Wendy M.; Barnett, Susan M. (2009). "Women's underrepresentation in science: Sociocultural and biological considerations". Psychological Bulletin. 135 (2): 218–261. doi:10.1037/a0014412. ISSN 1939-1455. PMID 19254079.
  29. ↑ "Digest of Education Statistics, 2012". nces.ed.gov. Retrieved 2023-03-31.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Whitmire, Richard; Bailey, Susan (15 January 2010). "Gender Gap". Education Next.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 "Civil Rights Data Collection(CRDC)" (PDF). Office for Civil Rights. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
  32. ↑ Daniel Voyer and Susan D. Voyer "Gender Differences in Scholastic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis." Psychological Bulletin © 2014 American Psychological Association 2014, Vol. 140, No. 4, 1174–1204 0033-2909/14/$12.00 https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0036620. https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/bul-a0036620.pdf
  33. ↑ "Women more likely than men to have earned a bachelor's degree by age 29 : The Economics Daily: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics". www.bls.gov. Retrieved 2023-03-31.
  34. ↑ "Leaving Boys Behind: Public High School Graduation Rates". Manhattan Institute. 2015-08-24. Retrieved 2023-03-31.
  35. ↑ Perry, Mark (2017-09-28). "Women Earned Majority of Doctoral Degrees in 2016 for 8th Straight Year and Outnumber Men in Grad School 135 to 100". American Enterprise Institute - AEI. Retrieved 2023-03-31.
  36. ↑ GNAULATI, ENRICO. "Why Girls Tend to Get Better Grades Than Boys Do." The Atlantic. 18 September 2014. https://archive.today/20170328190455/https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2014/09/why-girls-get-better-grades-than-boys-do/380318/
  37. ↑ Guo, Jeff. "The serious reason boys do worse than girls." The Washington Post. 28 January 2016. https://archive.today/20180722233207/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/01/28/the-serious-reason-boys-do-worse-than-girls/
  38. ↑ Semuels, Alana (2017-11-27). "Poor Girls Are Leaving Their Brothers Behind". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2023-03-31.
  39. ↑ "What Is It with Boys and Reading? | Psychology Today". www.psychologytoday.com. Retrieved 2023-03-31.
  40. ↑ Terrier, Camille. "Boys Lag Behind: How Teachers' Gender Biases Affect Student Achievement." IZA Discussion Paper No. 10343, November 2016. Forschungsinstitut, zur Zukunft der Arbeit, Institute for the Study, of Labor. http://ftp.iza.org/dp10343.pdf.
  41. ↑ Stoet, Gijsbert; Geary, David C. (2015). "Sex differences in academic achievement are not related to political, economic, or social equality". Intelligence. 48: 137–151. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2014.11.006. S2CID 143234406.
  42. ↑ Mago, Robert (1990). Race and Schooling in the South, 1880–1950: An Economic History. University of Chicago Press. pp. 21–22. ISBN 978-0-226-50510-7.
  43. ↑ "EdBuild | 23 Billion". edbuild.org. Retrieved 2023-03-31.
  44. ↑ Lewis-Mccoy, R. L'Heureux. "Race and Education". Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. 2nd Edition: 1.
  45. ↑ ""Acting White" – Education Next". Education Next. 22 June 2006. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
  46. ↑ Crosnoe, Robert; Turley, Ruth N. López (2011). "K-12 Educational Outcomes of Immigrant Youth". The Future of Children. 21 (1): 129–152. doi:10.1353/foc.2011.0008. ISSN 1550-1558. PMC 5555844. PMID 21465858.
  47. ↑ Baum, Deborah (February 22, 2019). ""News Report Shows How Immigrant Children Are Thriving In Schools, Community"". Brown University. Retrieved October 10, 2022.
  48. ↑ Powers, Margarita Pivovarova and Jeanne M. (2019-10-03). "Are immigrant students disproportionately consuming educational resources?". Brookings. Retrieved 2022-10-19.
  49. ↑ Ge, Haowen (2021-11-19). "ISSA Article". International Student Services Association. Retrieved 2022-10-24.
  50. ↑ "Refugee and migrant Crisis". SOS Childrens Villages
  51. ↑ "U.S. Immigration Enforcement Policy and Its Impact on Teaching and Learning in the Nation's Schools — The Civil Rights Project at UCLA". civilrightsproject.ucla.edu. Retrieved 2023-03-31.
  52. ↑ "Immigrant Students: Our Kids, Our Future". Learning Policy Institute. Retrieved 2022-10-24.
  53. ↑ U.S. Census Bureau. 2017. Annual Estimates of the Resident Population by Sex, Age, Race, and Hispanic Origin for the United States and States: 1 April 2010, to 1 July 2016
  54. ↑ Gonzalez, J. (2011). Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America. New York, New York: Penguin Books.
  55. ↑ Capps, R., Bachmeier, J. D., Fix, M., & Van Hook, J. (2013). A demographic, socioeconomic, and health coverage profile of unauthorized immigrants in the United States. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.
  56. ↑ Quayson, A. and Daswani, G. (2013) Introduction – Diaspora and Transnationalism, in A Companion to Diaspora and Transnationalism (eds A. Quayson and G. Daswani), Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Oxford, UK. DOI: 10.1002/9781118320792.ch1
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 "NYC Population Facts". www.nyc.gov. Retrieved 2023-03-31.
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 Bradeck, K.M.; Sibley, E.; Lykes, M.B. (2016). "Authorized and Unauthorized Immigrant Parents: The Impact of Legal Vulnerability on Family Contexts". Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences. 30 (1): 3–30. doi:10.1177/0739986315621741. S2CID 146214206.
  59. ↑ Hernandez, D.J, Denton, N.A., Macartney, S.E. (2008). Children in Immigrant Families: Looking to America's Future. Social Policy Report
  60. ↑ Taylor, Kate (2017-04-24). "New York City Will Offer Free Preschool for All 3-Year-Olds". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-03-31
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 Snyder, T. D., & Dillow, S. A. (2012). Digest of education statistics 2011 (NCES 2012-001). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
  62. ↑ Mattern, K.; Wyatt, J. (2009). "Student choice of college: How far do students go for an education?". Journal of College Admission. 203: 18–29.
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 Excelencia in Education. (2005). How Latino students pay for college. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED506050.pdf
  64. ↑ ACT. (2015). The Condition of College & Career Readiness 2015: Hispanic Students. Retrieved from http://www.act.org/content/dam/act/unsecured/documents/06-24-16-Subcon-Hispanic-Report.pdf
  65. ↑ College Board. (2017). 2017 SAT Suite Annual Report Total Group. Retrieved from https://reports.collegeboard.org/pdf/2017-total-group-sat-suite-assessments-annual-report.pdf Archived 2017-10-18 at the Wayback Machine
  66. ↑ Varma, Roli (2009-08-01). "Attracting Native Americans to computing". Communications of the ACM. 52 (8): 137–140. doi:10.1145/1536616.1536650. ISSN 0001-0782. S2CID 18342723.
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 Hodges, Jaret; Tay, Juliana; Maeda, Yukiko; Gentry, Marcia (2018-01-17). "A Meta-Analysis of Gifted and Talented Identification Practices". Gifted Child Quarterly. 62 (2): 147–174. doi:10.1177/0016986217752107. ISSN 0016-9862. S2CID 85441654.
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 Smith, Jessi L.; Cech, Erin; Metz, Anneke; Huntoon, Meghan; Moyer, Christina (July 2014). "Giving back or giving up: Native American student experiences in science and engineering". Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 20 (3): 413–429. doi:10.1037/a0036945. ISSN 1939-0106. PMID 25045952. ProQuest 1547256139.
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 69.3 Jackson, Aaron P.; Smith, Steven A; Hill, Curtis L (2003). "Academic Persistence Among Native American College Students". Journal of College Student Development. 44 (4): 548–565. doi:10.1353/csd.2003.0039. ISSN 1543-3382. S2CID 145209414.
  70. ↑ Wier, Kirsten (2016-11-10). "Inequality at Schools". www.apa.org. Retrieved 2022-10-24.
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 71.2 Krauss, Allison; Barnett, Steven (2020-06-01). "Access to High-Quality Early Education and Racial Equity" (PDF). Nieer. Retrieved 2022-10-14.
  72. ↑ Darling-Hammond, Linda (2022-10-19). "Unequal Opportunity: Race and Education". Brookings. Retrieved 2022-10-24.
  73. ↑ Truscott, Diane M.; Truscott, Stephen D. (2005). "Differing Circumstances, Shared Challenges: Finding Common Ground between Urban and Rural Schools". Phi Delta Kappan. 87 (2): 123–130. doi:10.1177/003172170508700208. ISSN 0031-7217. S2CID 144960548.
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 74.2 74.3 74.4 Waxman, Hersholt C.; Huang, Shwu-Yong L. (1997). "Classroom Instruction and Learning Environment Differences between Effective and Ineffective Urban Elementary Schools for African American Students". Urban Education. 32 (1): 7–44. doi:10.1177/0042085997032001002. ISSN 0042-0859. S2CID 143911695.
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 75.2 Peng, Samuel S.; Wang, Margaret C.; Walberg, Herbert J. (1992). "Demographic Disparities of Inner-City Eighth Graders". Urban Education. 26 (4): 441–459. doi:10.1177/0042085992026004008. ISSN 0042-0859. S2CID 145304667.
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 Roscigno, Vincent J.; Crowle, Martha L. (22 October 2009). "Rurality, Institutional Disadvantage, and Achievement/Attainment*". Rural Sociology. 66 (2): 268–292. doi:10.1111/j.1549-0831.2001.tb00067.x. ISSN 0036-0112.
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 77.2 77.3 77.4 77.5 77.6 Roscigno, V. J.; Tomaskovic-Devey, D.; Crowley, M. (1 June 2006). "Education and the Inequalities of Place". Social Forces. 84 (4): 2121–2145. doi:10.1353/sof.2006.0108. ISSN 0037-7732. S2CID 145658531.
  78. ↑ Ripple, Carol H; Luthar, Suniya S (1 May 2000). "Academic Risk Among Inner-City Adolescents: The Role of Personal Attributes". Journal of School Psychology. 38 (3): 277–298. doi:10.1016/S0022-4405(00)00032-7. ISSN 0022-4405. PMC 4023637. PMID 24839305.
  79. ↑ Beck, Frank (2005). "How do rural schools fare under a high-stakes testing regime?" (PDF). Journal of Research in Rural Education. 20. S2CID 14228760. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2018.
  80. ↑ Jennings, Jennifer; Sohn, Heeju (1 April 2014). "Measure for Measure: How Proficiency-based Accountability Systems Affect Inequality in Academic Achievement". Sociology of Education. 87 (2): 125–141. doi:10.1177/0038040714525787. ISSN 0038-0407. PMC 4843844. PMID 27122642.
  81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 Herman, Joan L.; Golan, Shari (25 October 2005). "The Effects of Standardized Testing on Teaching and Schools". Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice. 12 (4): 20–25. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3992.1993.tb00550.x. ISSN 0731-1745.
  82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 82.2 McGranahan, David A. (1980). "The Spatial Structure of Income Distribution in Rural Regions". American Sociological Review. 45 (2): 313–324. doi:10.2307/2095128. JSTOR 2095128.
  83. ↑ Condron, Dennis (2003). "Disparities Within: Unequal Spending and Achievement in an Urban School District". Sociology of Education. 76 (1): 18–36. doi:10.2307/3090259. JSTOR 3090259. S2CID 17874593.
  84. ↑ Mathews, Jay. "Study says standardized testing is overwhelming nation's public schools". The Washington Post.
  85. ↑ "Improving Children's Lives, Transforming the Future--25 Years of Child Rights in South Asia." UNICEF, UNICEF, 1 Jan. 2014. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED560005&site=ehost-live&scope=site.
  86. ↑ McFarland, Joel; Cui, Jiashan; Holmes, Juliet; Wang, Xiaolei (14 January 2020). "Trends in High School Dropout and Completion Rates in the United States: 2019".
  87. ↑ Goldfarb, Zachary. "These four charts show how the SAT favors rich, educated families". The Washington Post. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
  88. ↑ Downey, Douglas (1995). "When Bigger is Not Better: Family Size, Parental Resources, and Children's Educational Performance". American Sociological Review. 60 (5): 746–761. doi:10.2307/2096320. JSTOR 2096320. S2CID 13131112.
  89. ↑ DeLaRosa, Josue. "Students Are More Likely to Attend College if They Believe Family Can Afford to Pay". NCES. Retrieved 12 January 2022.
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 90.2 90.3 Ford, Donna (1998). "The Underrepresentation of Minority Students in Gifted Education: Problems and Promises in Recruitment and Retention". The Journal of Special Education. 32 (1): 4–14. doi:10.1177/002246699803200102. S2CID 145515626.
  91. ↑ "Including diverse learners in gifted education programs and services". National Association for Gifted Children. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
  92. ↑ 92.0 92.1 92.2 92.3 92.4 92.5 Losen, Daniel J; Orfield, Gary (2002). Racial Inequality in Special Education. Harvard Education Press.
  93. ↑ 93.0 93.1 93.2 93.3 93.4 93.5 93.6 Ladson-Billings, Gloria (2006). "From Achievement Gap to the Education Debt: Understanding Achievement in U.S. Schools". Educational Researcher. AERA Presidential Address. 35 (7): 1–11. doi:10.3102/0013189x035007003. S2CID 145286865.
  94. ↑ Fox-Williams, Lewis-McCoy, Brittany N., R. L'Heureux (2016). "Race and Education". Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. 2nd Edition.
  95. ↑ Fox-Williams, Lewis-McCoy, Brittany N., R. L'Heureux (2016). "Race and Education". Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. 2nd Edition.
  96. ↑ Lawrence Mishel, Jared Bernstein, and Heidi Shierholz, The State of Working America 2008/ 2009 (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press)cited in Stiglitz, Joseph E. (4 June 2012). The Price of Inequality: How Today's Divided Society Endangers Our Future (p. 308). Norton. Kindle Edition.
  97. ↑ Brown, Cynthia G. "The Persistence of Educational Inequality". Center for American Progress. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
  98. ↑ Merolla, David (2013). "The Net Black Advantage in Educational Transitions: An Educational Careers Approach". American Educational Research Journal. 50 (5): 895–924. doi:10.3102/0002831213486511. S2CID 145566807.
  99. ↑ Winthrop, Rebecca; Matsui, Elena. "A New Agenda for Education in Fragile States" (PDF). Brookings Institution. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 11 November 2014.
  100. ↑ Ferreira, Francisco; Jeremie, Gignoux (2014). "Measurement of Educational Inequality: Achievement and Opportunity". World Bank Economic Review. 28 (2): 210–246. doi:10.1093/wber/lht004. hdl:10986/23539. S2CID 9797693.
  101. ↑ Picard, Nathalie; Wolff, François-Charles (1 June 2010). "Measuring educational inequalities: a method and an application to Albania" (PDF). Journal of Population Economics. 23 (3): 989–1023. doi:10.1007/s00148-008-0201-z. ISSN 1432-1475. S2CID 53997904.
  102. ↑ "Our Work". World Bank. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
  103. ↑ 103.0 103.1 103.2 Xiang, Lili; Stillwell, John; Burns, Luke; Heppenstall, Alison (1 March 2020). "Measuring and Assessing Regional Education Inequalities in China under Changing Policy Regimes". Applied Spatial Analysis and Policy. 13 (1): 91–112. doi:10.1007/s12061-019-09293-8. ISSN 1874-4621. S2CID 134832565.
  104. ↑ 104.0 104.1 Scott, Janny; Leonhardt, David (2005-05-15). "Shadowy Lines That Still Divide". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-03-31.
  105. ↑ "Overview | State of Working America". www.stateofworkingamerica.org. Archived from the original on 7 September 2015. Retrieved 20 September 2015.
  106. ↑ "Wages | State of Working America". www.stateofworkingamerica.org. Archived from the original on 7 September 2015. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
  107. ↑ 107.0 107.1 107.2 107.3 "Toward Universal Learning: Implementing Assessment to Improve Learning". Brookings Institution. Brookings Institution and UNESCO Institute for Statistics. 15 July 2014. Retrieved 4 November 2014.
  108. ↑ United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (13 June 2014). "Coordination and Advocacy for EFA". United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
  109. ↑ "10 Things About The Global Partnership". The Global Partnership for Education. Global Partnership for Education. Archived from the original on 4 April 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
  110. ↑ Shrivastava, Meenal; Shrivastava, Sanjiv (June 2014). "Political economy of higher education: comparing South Africa to trends in the world". Higher Education. 64 (6): 809–822. doi:10.1007/s10734-013-9709-6. S2CID 143772365.
  111. ↑ Bellis, Mark A.; Hughes, Karen; Ford, Kat; Hardcastle, Katie A.; Sharp, Catherine A.; Wood, Sara; Homolova, Lucia; Davies, Alisha (26 June 2018). "Adverse childhood experiences and sources of childhood resilience: a retrospective study of their combined relationships with child health and educational attendance". BMC Public Health. 18 (1): 792. doi:10.1186/s12889-018-5699-8. ISSN 1471-2458. PMC 6020215. PMID 29940920.
  112. ↑ "Trauma-Informed Care in Schools: A Social Justice Imperative". National Association of School Psychologists (NASP). Retrieved 1 May 2022.
Yɛ yi fii "https://tw.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nhomasua_mu_pɛyɛ_a_enni_hɔ&oldid=179172"