Hokwan a ɛwɔ sɛ obi nya akwahosan (Right to health)

Hokwan a ɛwɔ sɛ obi nya akwahosan

economic, social and cultural rights

  

Wɔn a wɔyɛ ɔsɔretia no boaboa wɔn ho ano hwehwɛ hokwan a wɔwɔ sɛ wonya akwahosan wɔ Pakistan

Hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan (The right to health) ne sikasɛm (economic), asetra (social), ne amammerɛ mu hokwan (cultural right) a ɔwɔ sɛ wonya amansan nyinaa akwahosan gyinapɛn a ɛba fam koraa a ankorankoro nyinaa wɔ hokwan sɛ wonya. Wɔakan adwene a ɛfa hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ ɔwɔ akwahosan ho no wɔ amanaman ntam apam ahorow a nea ɛka ho ne Amansan Mpaemuka a Ɛfa Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ Ho (Universal Declaration of Human Rights), Amanaman Ntam Apam a Ɛfa Sikasɛm (International Covenant on Economic), Asetra ne Amammerɛ Hokwan Ho (Social and Cultural Rights), ne Apam a Ɛfa Hokwan a Nnipa a Wɔadi dɛm wɔ ho Akyinnyegye wɔ hokwan (Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities) a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan no nkyerɛase ne ne di ho esiane nsusuwii ahorow te sɛ sɛnea wɔkyerɛkyerɛ akwahosan mu, hokwan ahorow a ɛba fam koraa a ɛka hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan ho, ne ahyehyɛde ahorow a ɛyɛ wɔn asɛyɛde sɛ wɔhwɛ ma wonya akwahosan hokwan nti.

Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ Ho Nhwehwɛmu Dwumadi (Human Rights Measurement Initiative) susuw hokwan a aman a ɛwɔ wiase nyinaa nya akwahosan ho, gyina sika dodow a wonya so.

Nkyerɛaseɛ (Definition)

Afe 1946 Wiase Nyinaa Akwahosan Ahyehyɛde no Amanyɔ Mmara (Constitution of the World Health Organization - 1946).

Afe 1946 Wiase Nyinaa Akwahosan Ahyehyɛde (World Health Organization - WHO) Amanyɔ Mmara no nnianim asɛm no kyerɛkyerɛ akwahosan mu kɛse sɛ “honam fam, adwene ne asetra mu yiyedi koraa tebea na ɛnyɛ yare anaa mmerɛwyɛ a enni hɔ ara kwa - (a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity).” Amanyɔ Mmara no kyerɛkyerɛ hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan mu sɛ "akwahosan gyinapɛn a ɛkorɔn sen biara a wobetumi anya mu anigye," na ɛkan hokwan yi nnyinasosɛm ahorow bi sɛ mmofra nkɔso a ahoɔden wom; aduruyɛ ho nimdeɛ ne mfaso a ɛwɔ so a wɔbɛtrɛw mu pɛpɛɛpɛ; ne asetra mu nhyehyɛe ahorow a aban de ma a ɛbɛma wɔanya akwahosan a ɛfata.

Frank P. Grad de WHO Amanyɔ Mmara no ho anuonyam ma sɛ "ɛka ... nnɛyi amanaman ntam ɔmanfo akwahosan no fa mũ no nyinaa," de hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan no si hɔ sɛ " ɔdesamma hokwan titiriw a wontumi nnye mfi (inalienable human right) ne nsam " a aban ahorow ntumi mmɔ so, na ɛyɛ wɔn asɛyɛde mmom sɛ wɔbɔ ho ban na gyina akyi. WHO Amanyɔ Mmara no titiriw na ɛhyɛ hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan ho hye a edi kan wɔ amanaman ntam mmara mu wɔ ɔkwan a ɛfata so.

Afe 1948Amansan Mpaemuka a Ɛfa Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ Ho (Universal Declaration of Human Rights - 1948).

Romaniafo a wɔyɛ adwumaden de nkatanim yɛ "aduonu anum (25)", a ɛyɛ Amanaman Nkabom no Amanaman Nkabom Mpaemuka a Ɛfa Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ Ho Ahyɛde aduonu anum (25) ho asɛm.

Amanaman Nkabom no 1948 Amansan Mpaemuka a ɛfa Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ ho (Universal Declaration of Human Rights) no Ahyɛde aduonu anum (25) ka sɛ "Obiara wɔ hokwan sɛ onya asetra gyinapɛn (right to a standard of living) a ɛfata ma n'abusua akwahosan ne yiyedi, a aduan, ntade, adan ne ayaresa ne ayaresa ka ho asetra mu nnwuma a ɛho hia." Amansan Mpaemuka no ka dabere foforo a wɔde bɛma ahobammɔ wɔ nipadua mu mmerɛwyɛ anaa dɛmdi ho, na ɛka ɔhwɛ a wɔde ma wɔn a wɔwɔ ɛnanom anaa mmofraberem no ho asɛm titiriw.

Wɔhyɛ Amansan Mpaemuka a Ɛfa Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ Ho no nsow sɛ amanaman ntam mpaemuka a edi kan a ɛfa hokwan atitiriw a nnipa wɔ, ahofadi ne hokwan ahorow nyinaa ho. Amanaman Nkabom Panyin a ɔhwɛ Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ So Navanethem Pillay kyerɛw sɛ Amansan Mpaemuka a Ɛfa Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ Ho no “de anisoadehu bi a ɛhwehwɛ sɛ wɔfa hokwan ahorow a nnipa wɔ nyinaa—ɔmanfo, amammuisɛm, sikasɛm, asetra mu, anaa amammerɛ—sɛ ade mu a wontumi nkyekyɛ mu na ɛyɛ abɔde mu nneɛma, a wontumi ntetew mu na egyina ne ho so.” Saa ara nso na Gruskin ne afoforo. kyerɛ sɛ hokwan ahorow a wɔada no adi wɔ Amansan Mpaemuka no mu a ɛne wɔn ho wɔn ho wɔ abusuabɔ no de “asɛyɛde a ɛtrɛw kɔ akyiri sen akwahosan ho nnwuma a ɛho hia a wɔde bɛma de adi nneɛma a ɛkyerɛ akwahosan te sɛ, nhomasua a ɛfata, adan, aduan, ne adwumayɛ tebea pa a wɔde bɛma no ho dwuma” si hɔ ," a ɛka bio sɛ saa nhyehyɛe ahorow yi "yɛ nnipa hokwan ahorow ankasa na ɛho hia ma akwahosan."

Afe 1965 Amanaman Ntam Apam a Ɛfa Abusuakuw Mu Nyiyim Nyinaa a Wobeyi Afi Hɔ Ho (International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination - 1965)

Wɔaka akwahosan ho asɛm tiawa wɔ Amanaman Nkabom Amanaman Ntam Apam a Ɛfa Abusuakuw Mu Nyiyim Nyinaa a Wobeyi Afi Hɔ Ho (International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination), a wogye toom wɔ 1965 mu na efii ase yɛɛ adwuma wɔ 1969 mu no mu.

Apam no frɛ Aman sɛ "Wɔnbara na wonnyi mmusua mu nyiyim mfi hɔ wɔ ne kwan nyinaa so na wɔmfa hokwan a obiara wɔ, a nsonsonoe biara nni mu wɔ abusuakuw, kɔla, anaa ɔman anaa mmusuakuw a ofi mu, sɛ ɔyɛ pɛ wɔ mmara no anim," ne nsɛm a wɔatwe adwene asi so wɔ eyi ase nhyehyeɛ "Hokwan a ɔwɔ sɛ ɔnya ɔmanfoɔ akwahosan, ayaresa, asetena mu ahobanbɔ ne asetena mu nnwuma."

Aman a wɔyɛ saa Apam yi gye hokwan a obiara wɔ sɛ onya nipadua ne adwene mu akwahosan a ɛkorɔn sen biara a wobetumi anya no tom. Anamɔn a Aman a wɔyɛ saa Apam yi mufoɔ no bɛtu na ama wɔanya hokwan yi abam koraa no bi ne deɛ ɛhia ma:

Nkokoaa a wɔwo wɔn a wɔawuwu ne nkokoaa a wowuwu a wɔbɛtew so na ama abofra no nyin yiye;

Nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia ne mfiridwuma mu ahotew afa horow nyinaa a wɔbɛma atu mpɔn;

Nyarewa a ɛyɛ ɔyaredɔm, ɔyaredɔm a ɛwɔ hɔ, adwuma mu ne nyarewa afoforo a wosiw ano, sa wɔn yare na wodi so;

Tebea horow a ɛbɛma aduruyɛ ne ayaresa nyinaa anya awerɛhyem sɛ yare bi ba a.

Afe 1966 Amanaman Ntam Apam a Ɛfa Sikasɛm, Asetra ne Amammerɛ Hokwan Ho (International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - 1966)

Aman a wɔyɛ Amanaman Ntam Apam a Ɛfa Sikasɛm, Asetra ne Amammerɛ Hokwan Ho no mufo ne wɔn a wɔde wɔn nsa ahyɛ ase. Afanu ne wɔn a wɔde wɔn nsa ahyɛ ICESCR ase:

Amanaman Nkabom no san kyerɛkyerɛ hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan mu wɔ afe 1966 Amanaman Ntam Apam a Ɛfa Sikasɛm, Asetra ne Amammerɛ Hokwan Ho (International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights) no Ahyɛde dumien (12) mu, a ɛka sɛ: 

Afe 2000 Nsɛm a Wɔkae a Ɛto so 14 (General Comment No. 14 - 2000)

Wɔ afe 2000 mu no, Amanaman Nkabom Boayikuw a Ɛhwɛ Sikasɛm, Asetra ne Amammerɛ Hokwan So (United Nations' Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights) no de Nsɛm a Ɛtɔ so dunnan (14) mae, a ɛfa "nsɛm atitiriw a ɛsɔre wɔ Amanaman Ntam Apam a Ɛfa Sikasɛm, Asetra ne Amammerɛ Hokwan Ho no a wɔde bedi dwuma mu (substantive issues arising in the implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights)" a ɛfa Ahyɛde dumien (12) ne "hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan gyinapɛn a ɛkorɔn sen biara a wobetumi anya (the right to the highest attainable standard of health)." General Comment no de kasa a ɛda adi pefee, a ɛyɛ adwuma ma wɔ ahofadi ne hokwan ahorow a ɛka hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan ho,

General Comment no ma emu da hɔ tẽẽ sɛ "ɛnyɛ sɛ wɔte hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan no ase sɛ hokwan a ɔwɔ sɛ onya apɔwmuden. " Mmom no, wɔaka hokwan a ɔwɔ sɛ onya akwahosan ho asɛm sɛ ahofadi ne hokwan ahorow nyinaa a ɛfa onipa no abɔde mu ne asetra mu tebea horow ne Ɔman no nneɛma a ɛwɔ hɔ nso ho, a abien no nyinaa betumi asiw hokwan a ɔwɔ sɛ ɔwɔ apɔwmuden kwan esiane nneɛma a ɛboro nkɛntɛnso anaa tumi so nti Ɔman no. Ahyɛde 12 de adwuma hyɛ Ɔman no nsa sɛ onnye ntom sɛ ankorankoro biara wɔ hokwan a efi awosu mu wɔ akwahosan gyinapɛn a eye sen biara a wobetumi ayɛ ho, na ɛka (anyɛ yiye koraa no ne fa bi) ‘ahofadi a ɔwɔ fi’ ne ‘hokwan a ɔwɔ sɛ obenya’ a ɛka hokwan a ɛte saa ho no ho asɛm; nanso, ɛnyɛ Ɔman no sobo sɛ ɔnhwɛ sɛ ankorankoro nyinaa, nokwarem no, wɔ apɔwmuden koraa, na saa ara nso na ɛnyɛ sɛ ankorankoro nyinaa agye hokwan ne hokwan ahorow a wɔabobɔ din wɔ hokwan a wɔwɔ sɛ wonya akwahosan mu no atom koraa.

Abusuabɔ a ɛda hokwan afoforo ntam (Relation to other rights)

Te sɛ Amansan Mpaemuka a Ɛfa Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ Ho no,(Universal Declaration of Human Rights) Nsɛm a Wɔkae Kɛse (General Comment) no ma nnipa hokwan ahorow a ɛne wɔn ho wɔn ho wɔ abusuabɔ no mu da hɔ, na ɛka sɛ, "hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan no ne hokwan afoforo a nnipa wɔ no wɔ abusuabɔ kɛse na egyina so," na ɛnam so si hia a ɛho hia sɛ wonya nkɔso wɔ hokwan afoforo te sɛ hokwan ahorow a obi wɔ sɛ onya aduan, adwuma, dan, asetra, nyiyim a wɔnyɛ, nnipa nidi, ne nea ɛho hia a wobenya, ne afoforo, a ɛbɛma wɔagye hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan tom. Saa ara nso na Nsɛm a Wɔkae Kɛse no gye tom sɛ "hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan no fa asetra ne sikasɛm mu nneɛma ahorow pii a ɛhyɛ tebea horow a nnipa betumi atra ase a ahoɔden wom ho nkuran, na ɛtrɛw kɔ nneɛma a ɛhyɛ akwahosan ho nkuran no so." Wɔ eyi mu no, Nsɛm a Wɔkae Kɛse no kyerɛ sɛ anammɔn pɔtee a wɔfa so nya hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan a wɔabobɔ din wɔ Ahyɛde dumien (12) no mu no nyɛ nea edi mu na ɛyɛ nhwɛso katee.

Abusuabɔ a wontumi ntetew mu a ɛda Akwahosan ne Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ ntam (The inextricable link between Health and Human Rights)

Lisa Murkowski wɔ 2019 Alaska Mantam Nsakraeɛ Akwahosan Nhyehyɛeɛ Nhyiamu ase

Ná Jonathan Mann yɛ Francois-Xavier Bagnoud Ɔbenfo a ɔkyerɛ Akwahosan ne Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ ne Ɔbenfo a ɔkyerɛ Nyarewa Ho Adesua ne Amanaman Ntam Akwahosan wɔ Harvard T. H. Chan Sukuu a Ɛhwɛ Ɔmanfo Akwahosan So (Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health). Na wonim no sɛ ɔyɛ ɔkwampaefo a ɔwɔ tumi na ɔkamfo akwahosan, abrabɔ pa, ne nnipa hokwan ahorow a wɔbɛhyɛ ho nkuran, na ɔkamfoo nsusuwii a ɛne sɛ Akwahosan ne Hokwan a Nnipa wɔ wɔ abusuabɔ a wontumi ntetew mu wɔ abusuabɔ a ɛyɛ nnam mu no akyi.

Sɛnea Mann kyerɛ no, Akwahosan ne Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ yɛ akwan a ɛka bom a wɔfa so kyerɛkyerɛ nnipa yiyedi mu na wɔma ɛkɔ anim. Wɔ afe 1994 mu no, Jonathan Mann ne ne mfɛfo fii "Akwahosan ne Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ (Health and Human Rights)" ase de sii hia a abusuabɔ a wontumi ntetew mu yi a ɛda Akwahosan ne Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ ntam no ho hia so dua.

Wɔ "Akwahosan ne Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ (Health and Human Rights)" no po a edi kan mu no, Jonathan Mann ne ne mfɛfo tintim asɛm bi a ɛsakra de hwehwɛɛ biakoyɛ a ebetumi aba wɔ Akwahosan ne Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ mu. Wɔ saa asɛm yi mu no, Mann ne afoforo. kyerɛkyerɛ nhyehyeɛ a wɔde bɛka domain mmienu a ɛka bom no bom. Wɔakyekyɛ saa nhyehyɛe yi mu ayɛ no abusuabɔ abiɛsa a ɛtrɛw.

Abusuabɔ a edi kan a ɛda Akwahosan ne Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ ntam no yɛ amammuisɛm. Mann ne ne mfɛfo ka sɛ akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe, nhyehyɛe, ne nneyɛe nya hokwan ahorow a nnipa wɔ so nkɛntɛnso, titiriw bere a wosusuw ɔman tumidi ho wɔ ɔmanfo akwahosan ho no.

Afei, asɛm no de abusuabɔ a ɛne no bɔ abira kyerɛ: sɛ nnipa hokwan ahorow a wobu so no nya akwahosan so nkɛntɛnso. Ɛsan nso hwehwɛ sɛ akwahosan ho nimdeɛ bɛboa ma wɔate sɛnea akwahosan ne yiyedi betumi anya nkɛntɛnso wɔ nnipa hokwan ahorow a wobu so denam susudua ne nhwehwɛmu so.

Nhyehyɛeɛ a ɛka Akwahosan ne Nnipa Hokwan bom no fa a ɛtɔ so mmiɛnsa no de adwene a ɛne sɛ nnipa hokwan ne akwahosan ho banbɔ ne nkɔsoɔ wɔ abusuabɔ titire wɔ abusuabɔ a ɛyɛ nnam mu no ba. Bere a nhoma ahorow afoa abusuabɔ abien a edi kan no so kɛse no, wɔanhwehwɛ saa nsusuwii hunu a ɛto so abiɛsa yi mu kɛse saa.

Asɛm no foa saa adwene yi so denam ka a ɛka sɛ saa nkitahodi yi kyerɛ sɛ nea efi mu ba a mfaso wɔ so a ɛyɛ nwonwa wɔ ɔmanfo akwahosan ho adeyɛ ne nnipa hokwan ahorow a wɔde di dwuma no dwumadi ahorow a ɛde ne ho, nanso nkitahodi a ɛwɔ dwumadi ahorow mu nso mu. Nea wobu no sɛ ɛyɛ nea ɛde ne ho to wɔn ho wɔn ho so a wontumi nnye ntom wɔ hɔ. Mann ne ne mfɛfo no san ka sɛ nhwehwɛmu, nhomasua, osuahu, ne nsɛm a wɔka de gyina nkurɔfo akyi nyinaa ho hia na ama wɔate saa nhyiam yi ase, na ama wɔate nnipa yiyedi ase na wɔama anya nkɔso wɔ wiase nyinaa.

Awiei koraa no, Mann ne ne yɔnko dwumayɛni adwuma ne sɛ wɔbɛda no adi sɛ, bere a ankorankoro akwahosan ayɛ nea wɔde wɔn adwene asi so kɛse wɔ aduruyɛ ne akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe afoforo mu, titiriw wɔ nipadua mu yare ne dɛmdi ho no, ɔmanfo akwahosan (public health') adwene no akɔ so kɛse wɔ sɛnea nkurɔfo betumi ayɛ ho te apɔ. Sɛnea nkyerɛase a ɛyɛ mmerɛw a ɛyɛ nwonwa yi kyerɛ no, ɔmanfo akwahosan adwuma ne sɛ wɔbɛhyɛ akwahosan pa ho nkuran na wɔasiw akwahosan ho haw ahorow ano – yare, dɛmdi, owu a ɛba ntɛm. Ɛne sɛ, atetesɛm mu nteaseɛ a ɛfa ankorankoro akwahosan ho sɛdeɛ akwahosan ho dwumadie te aseɛ na ɛdi ho dwuma no yɛ "tebea baako a ɛho hia ma akwahosan", nanso ɛnyɛ ɛno nko ara na ɛfata anaa asɛmfua a wɔde sesa "akwahosan". Ɔkwan foforɔ so no, akwahosan ho dwumadie nnɔɔso mma akwahosan, sɛdeɛ ɔmanfoɔ akwahosan ho adwumayɛfoɔ te aseɛ no – abɔnten so nneɛma bi wɔ hɔ a ɛde nsunsuansoɔ pa ne bɔne a ɛda adi wɔ wiase nyinaa nnipa dodoɔ akwahosan ne yiedie so no ayɛ nuanced na ɛda adi nso.

Akwahosan Pɛyɛ ahyɛnsode

Akwahosan mu pɛyɛ (Health equity)

Nsɛm a Wɔkae no Kɛse (General Comment) no nso ka asɛmmisa a ɛfa akwahosan mu pɛyɛ ho (health equity), adwene a wɔanka ho asɛm wɔ Amanaman Ntam Apam a edi kan no mu no ho asɛm foforo. Krataa no hyɛ no nsow sɛ, "Apam no bara nyiyim (discrimination) biara a wɔbɛyɛ wɔ akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe a wobenya ne nneɛma a ɛhyɛ akwahosan ho gyinae, ne akwan ne hokwan ahorow a wɔde bɛtɔ wɔn." Bio nso, wɔde asɛyɛde a ɛne sɛ wɔbɛma nyiyim ne nea efi mu ba wɔ akwahosan ho no atu mpɔn no ahyɛ Ɔman no nsa: “Aman no wɔ asɛyɛde titiriw sɛ wɔde akwahosan ho insurance ne akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe a ɛho hia bɛma wɔn a wonni sika a ɛdɔɔso, na wɔasiw nyiyim biara ano (States have a special obligation to provide those who do not have sufficient means with the necessary health insurance and health-care facilities, and to prevent any discrimination on internationally prohibited grounds in the provision of health care and health services).” wɔ nneɛma a wɔabara wɔ amanaman ntam wɔ akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe ne akwahosan ho nnwuma a wɔde ma mu." Wɔasi nyiyim a wɔnyɛ (non-discrimination) a egyina ɔbarima ne ɔbea nna (basis of gender), mfe a wɔadi (age), dɛmdi (disability), anaa asɔremma a wɔyɛ wɔ aborɔfo mpɔtam hɔ so dua bio (membership in indigenous communities).

Aman ne amanaman ntam ahyehyɛde ahorow asɛyɛde ahorow (Responsibilities of states and international organizations)

Nkyerɛkyerɛmu Kɛse no afa horow a edi hɔ no ka asɛyɛde ahorow a aman ne amanaman ntam ahyehyɛde ahorow wɔ wɔ hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan ho asɛm kɔ akyiri. Wɔakyekyɛ aman asɛyɛde ahorow mu akuw abiɛsa: asɛyɛde ahorow a ɛne sɛ wobedi obu, asɛyɛde ahorow a ɛne sɛ wɔbɛbɔ wɔn ho ban, ne asɛyɛde ahorow a ɛne sɛ wobedi hokwan a wɔwɔ sɛ wonya akwahosan ho dwuma. Eyinom ho nhwɛso (wɔ ɔkwan a ɛnyɛ nea edi mu so) ne nyiyim a wobesiw ano wɔ ɔhwɛ a wobenya anaa wɔde ma mu; anohyeto ahorow a ɛwɔ nnuru a wɔde siw nyinsɛn ano anaa abusua nhyehyɛe ho a wɔbɛkwati; akwahosan ho nsɛm a wɔpow a wɔbɛbara; nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia a wɔtew so; aduruyɛ mu nneyɛe a wɔde hyɛ nkurɔfo ne/anaasɛ epira a egyina amammerɛ so ano hye; hwɛ a wɔbɛhwɛ sɛ wobenya nneɛma a ɛkyerɛ akwahosan wɔ asetra mu no pɛpɛɛpɛ; ne akwankyerɛ a ɛfata a wɔde bɛma wɔ nnuruyɛbea ahorow, adwumayɛfo, ne nnwinnade a wobegye atom ho. Amanaman ntam asɛyɛde ahorow bi ne sɛ wɔbɛma kwan ma wɔanya akwahosan mu anigye wɔ aman afoforo so; akwahosan ho mmara a wobu so wɔ aman afoforo so a wobesiw ano; a wɔbɛyɛ biako wɔ mmoa a wɔde ma wɔ nnipa mmoa a wɔde ma wɔ asiane ne tebea horow a egye ntɛmpɛ ho; ne kwati a wɔbɛkwati sɛ wɔde bara a wɔabara nnuruyɛ mu nneɛma anaa adwumayɛfo bedi dwuma sɛ adeyɛ a ɛde amammui anaa sikasɛm mu nkɛntɛnso ba.

Apam a Ɛfa Nyiyim a Wɔyɛ Tia Mmea Nyinaa a Wobeyi Afi Hɔ Ho (Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women)

Apam a Ɛfa Nyiyim a Wɔyɛ Tia Mmea Nyinaa a Wobeyi Afi Hɔ (CEDAW) mu a wɔde wɔn ho bɛhyɛ mu . 

  Party denam Signature ne ratification so

Amanaman Nkabom Apam a ɛfa afe 1979 Amanaman Nkabom Apam a Ɛfa Nyiyim a Wɔyɛ Tia Mmea Nyinaa a Wobeyi Afi Hɔ Ho (Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women) no Ahyɛde dumien (12) kyerɛ ahobammɔ a mmea bɛbɔ afi nyiyim a wɔyɛ wɔ ɔbarima ne ɔbea nna ho bere a wɔrenya akwahosan ho nnwuma ne hokwan a mmea wɔ sɛ wonya akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe pɔtee bi a ɛfa ɔbarima ne ɔbea nna ho. Ahyɛde dumien (12) no mu nsɛm nyinaa ka sɛ:

Ahyɛdeɛ 12:

1. Aman a wɔyɛ apam no bɛyɛ akwan a ɛfata nyinaa de ayi nyiyim a wɔyɛ tia mmea wɔ akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe mu no afi hɔ sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a, egyina mmarima ne mmea pɛyɛ so, wɔbɛma wɔanya akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe, a nea ɛfa abusua nhyehyɛe ho ka ho.
2. Ɛmfa ho sɛnea asɛm yi nkyekyɛm I mu nsɛm no te no, Aman a wɔyɛ Aman a wɔayɛ apam no bɛhwɛ ma mmea anya nnwuma a ɛfata a ɛfa nyinsɛn, afiase ne awo akyi bere ho, na wɔbɛma mmea nnwuma a wontua hwee wɔ baabi a ɛho hia, ne aduan pa a ɛfata wɔ nyinsɛn ne nufu bere mu.

Apam a Ɛfa Hokwan a Abofra Wɔ Ho (Convention on the Rights of the Child)

Aman a wɔyɛ Mmofra Hokwan Ho Apam no mufo 

  Apontow ahorow

Wɔaka akwahosan ho asɛm wɔ nsɛm pii mu wɔ Mmofra Hokwan Ho Apam afe 1989) mu (Convention on the Rights of the Child - 1989). Ahyɛde mmiɛnsa (3) no frɛ afa horow no sɛ wɔnhwɛ sɛ ahyehyɛde ahorow ne mmeae a wɔhwɛ mmofra no di akwahosan gyinapɛn ahorow so. Ahyɛdeɛ dunson (17) no gye hokwan a abofra no wɔ sɛ ɔnya nsɛm a ɛfa ne nipadua ne n’adwene mu akwahosan ne ne yiedie ho tom. Ahyɛdeɛ aduonu mmiɛnsa (23) no ka hokwan a mmofra a wɔadi dɛm wɔ ho asɛm pɔtee, a ɛka ho ne akwahosan ho dwumadie, ahosiesie, ɔhwɛ a wɔde siw ano. Ahyɛde aduonu anan (24) no ka mmofra akwahosan ho asɛm kɔ akyiri, na ɛka sɛ, "Afanu no gye hokwan a abofra no wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan gyinapɛn a ɛkorɔn sen biara a wobetumi anya mu anigye ne mmeae a wɔbɛsa yare na wɔasan asiesie akwahosan no tom (Parties recognize the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health. States shall strive to ensure that no child is deprived of his or her right of access to such health care services)." Aman bɛbɔ mmɔden sɛ wɔbɛhwɛ sɛ wɔremfa hokwan a ɔwɔ sɛ obenya akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe a ɛte saa no mfi abofra biara nsam." Sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a wɔde saa nhyehyɛe yi bedi dwuma no, Apam no kan nneɛma a edidi so yi:

• Sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a nkokoaa ne mmofra a wowuwu so bɛtew;
• Sɛ wɔbɛhwɛ sɛ wɔde ayaresa mmoa ne akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe a ɛho hia bɛma mmofra nyinaa a wɔasi akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe a edi kan a wobenya so dua;
• Sɛ wɔbɛko atia nyarewa ne aduan pa a wonnya nni, a akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe titiriw nhyehyɛe mu ka ho, denam, nea ɛka ho ne, mfiridwuma a wobetumi anya ntɛm a wɔde bedi dwuma ne nnuan a ahoɔden wom a ɛfata ne nsu pa a wɔnom a wɔde bɛma so, a wosusuw asiane ne asiane ahorow a ɛwɔ nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia a wɔsɛe no mu no ho;
• Sɛ wɔbɛhwɛ sɛ wɔde akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe a ɛfata bɛma ɛnanom ansa na wɔawo wɔn ne wɔn awo akyi;
• Sɛ wɔbɛhwɛ sɛ wɔbɛbɔ ɔmanfoɔ akuo nyinaa, titire awofoɔ ne mmofra, amanneɛ, anya nwomasua na wɔaboa wɔn wɔ nimdeɛ titire a wɔde bedi dwuma wɔ mmofra akwahosan ne aduane pa ho, mfasoɔ a ɛwɔ nufu a wɔde ma, ahotew ne nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia so ne akwanhyia a wɔbɛsiw ano no mu;
• Sɛ wɔbɛhyehyɛ akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe a wɔde siw ano, akwankyerɛ ama awofo ne abusua nhyehyɛe ho nkyerɛkyerɛ ne nnwuma.

Wiase Akwahosan Ahyehyɛde (World Health Organization) no wɛbsaet (website) no ka sɛ, "CRC yɛ mmara ne mmara nhyehyɛe a ɛfa WHO adwuma ho wɔ mmofra ne mmabun akwahosan ho nsɛm pii mu." Goldhagen de CRC no kyerɛ sɛ "nsusuwii a wɔde bɛkamfo mmofra (template for child advocacy)" na ɔhyɛ nyansa sɛ wɔmfa nni dwuma sɛ nhyehyɛe a wɔde bɛtew nsonsonoe so na ama nea efi mu ba wɔ mmofra akwahosan mu no atu mpɔn.

Apam a Ɛfa Hokwan a Nnipa a Wɔadi M dɛm Wɔ Ho (Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities)

Ahyɛdeɛ aduonu anum (25) a ɛfa Hokwan a Nnipa a Wɔadi dɛm (Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities) wɔ afe (2006) no kyerɛ pefee sɛ "nnipa a wɔadi dɛm wɔ hokwan sɛ wɔnya akwahosan a ɛkorɔn a wɔbɛtumi anya a wɔnyɛ nyiyim wɔ dɛmdi ho (persons with disabilities have the right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health without discrimination on the basis of disability)." Ahyɛdeɛ aduonu anum (25) no mu nkyekyɛmu nketewa (sub-clauses) no ka sɛ Aman bɛma mmubuafoɔ akwahosan ho nhyehyɛeɛ "a ɛyɛ papa, ne gyinapɛn" korɔ no ara a wɔde ma nnipa foforɔ, ne saa nnwuma a wɔhwehwɛ titire ma mmubuafoɔ a wɔsiw ano, wɔhunu wɔn, na wɔdi ho dwuma . Nsiesiei foforo kyerɛ sɛ ɛsɛ sɛ wɔma akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe ma mmubuafo wɔ mpɔtam hɔ na ɛsɛ sɛ wɔhwɛ ma wɔyɛ pɛ wɔ asasesin mu, a nsɛm foforo ka ho tia akwahosan ho nnwuma a wɔpow anaasɛ ɛnyɛ pɛ a wɔde ma (a "aduan ne nsu (food and fluids)" ne "nkwa ho insurance (life insurance)" ka hoɔ wɔ so nea egyina dɛmdi so.

Hendriks na ɔkyerɛwee  kasa tia sɛnea apam no antumi ankyerɛkyerɛ asɛmfua " dɛmdi" mu pɔtee no; ɔsan ka sɛ "nkyerɛkyerɛmu a emu da hɔ a enni hɔ betumi asɛe nkyerɛase koro no, anaasɛ anyɛ yiye koraa no, ɛde ahobammɔ a ɛkɔ so daa a Apam no hwehwɛ sɛ ɛde bɛma no bɛto asiane mu." Nanso, ogye tom sɛ nkyerɛase a emu da hɔ a wonnya mma "mmubuafo" no betumi aboa mmubuafo denam tumi a Ɔman no wɔ sɛ ɛbɛto apam no mu nhyehyɛe ahorow a wɔbɛtrɛw mu akɔ nnipa pɔtee bi anaa wɔn a wɔwɔ tebea horow bi so no ano hye so.

Nkyerɛase ahorow a ɛwɔ nhomasua nhoma ahorow mu (Definitions in academic literature)

Bere a wɔde nsusuwii hyehyɛ nnipa hokwan dodow no ara sɛ hokwan ahorow a enye, a ɛkyerɛ sɛ ɛyɛ mmeae a ɔmanfo ntumi mfa amammuisɛm mu nneyɛe mfa wɔn ho nnye mu anaasɛ wontumi nsiw ano no, Mervyn Susser kyerɛ sɛ hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan yɛ hokwan soronko titiriw na ɛyɛ den efisɛ wɔtaa da no adi sɛ ɛyɛ adepa right, baabi a ɔmanfo wɔ asɛyɛde sɛ wɔde nneɛma ne hokwan ahorow bi bɛma ɔmanfo nyinaa.

Susser san de nhyehyɛe anan a ohu sɛ ɛka ho wɔ hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan ho no to hɔ: akwahosan ne ayaresa ho nnwuma a wobenya wɔ ɔkwan a ɛfata so; "gyidi pa" asetra mu mmɔdenbɔ a wɔde bɛhyɛ akwahosan a ɛyɛ pɛ ho nkuran wɔ asetra mu akuw ahorow mu; kyerɛ sɛ wɔbɛsusu na wɔasusu akwahosan mu pɛyɛ ho; ne asetena mu amammui nhyehyɛe a ɛyɛ pɛ a ɛbɛma afa horow no nyinaa anya nne soronko wɔ akwahosan ho nsɛm a wɔka ne ne nkɔso mu. Ɔhwɛ yiye sɛ ɔbɛhyɛ no nsow wɔ ha sɛ, bere a ɛda adi sɛ eyi hwehwɛ sɛ wonya akwahosan ho nneɛma a ɛba fam koraa no, ɛnkyerɛ sɛ obiara nya akwahosan tebea a ɛfata anaasɛ ɛmma ɛnhia sɛ obi nya akwahosan tebea a ɛyɛ pɛ esiane nsonsonoe a ɛwɔ abɔde mu wɔ akwahosan tebea mu a efi awosu mu nti. Saa nsonsonoe yi yɛ nea ɛho hia, efisɛ kasatia bi a wɔtaa ka wɔ "hokwan a obi nya wɔ akwahosan ho" ho ne sɛ ɛde hokwan a obi wɔ wɔ gyinapɛn bi a wontumi nnya ho si hɔ na ɛpɛ sɛ wonya akwahosan tebea a ɛsakra dodo wɔ adwene mu fi onipa biako so kɔ foforo so anaasɛ ɔman biako mu de kɔ nea edi hɔ no so.

Bere a Susser nkɔmmɔbɔ no twe adwene si akwahosan ho sɛ hokwan pa so no, Paul Hunt bɔ saa adwene yi gu na ɔde asɛm a ɛne sɛ hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan nso ka hokwan ahorow bi a enye te sɛ ahobammɔ a wonya fi nyiyim ho ne hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onnya ayaresa a nea ogye no no mfi ne pɛ mu mpene so no ma. Nanso, Hunt gye tom sɛ hokwan pa bi, te sɛ asɛyɛde a ɔmanfo wɔ sɛ wɔde wɔn adwene si wɔn a wonnya mmoa ne wɔn a wonni ahobammɔ no akwahosan ahiade so titiriw no ka hokwan a wɔwɔ sɛ wonya akwahosan ho.

Paul Farmer di asɛm a ɛfa akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe a ɛnyɛ pɛ a wobenya ho asɛm wɔ n'asɛm, "Nyarewa akɛse a ɛde ɔyare mmoawa ba wɔ wiase - sɛ wɔbɛsa anaasɛ wɔrensa." Ɔka "nsonsonoe a ɛda nea efi mu ba" a ɛrenya nkɔanim wɔ nnipa dodow a wonya akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe ne wɔn a wɔnyɛ saa ntam no ho asɛm. Ahiafo nnya ayaresa koro no ara, sɛ ebi wɔ hɔ koraa a, sɛnea wɔn a wɔwɔ sikasɛm mu anigye kɛse no. Nnuru ne ayaresa ho ka a ɛkɔ soro no ma ɛyɛ ɔhaw ma aman a wodi hia sɛ wobenya ɔhwɛ a ɛyɛ pɛ. Ɔka sɛ, "Nneɛma a ɛkyɛn so a pɛyɛ nni mu no reba sɛ akwahosan ho asɛnnennen titiriw a ɛfa nnipa hokwan ahorow ho wɔ afeha a ɛto so aduonu baako (21) yi mu."

Hokwan a nnipa wɔ sɛ wonya akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe (Human right to health care)

"Akwahosan yɛ onipa hokwan" sɛnkyerɛnne

Ɔkwan foforo a wɔfa so susuw hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan no fa biako ho ne “hokwan a onipa wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe.” Nea ɛda nsow ne sɛ, eyi ka hokwan ahorow a ayarefo ne wɔn a wɔde mmoa ma no nyinaa wɔ wɔ akwahosan ho nnwuma a wɔde ma mu ho, na nea etwa to no nso abue kwan ma aman no taa yɛ wɔn ayayade. Hokwan ahorow a ayarefo wɔ wɔ akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe (ealth care) a wɔde ma mu no bi ne: hokwan a wɔwɔ sɛ wonya kokoam nsɛm (right to privacy), nsɛm (information), asetra (life), ne ɔhwɛ a ɛfata (quality care), ne ahofadi a wobenya afi nyiyim (freedom from discrimination), ayayade (torture), ne atirimɔdensɛm, atirimɔdensɛm, anaasɛ animtiaabu ho (cruel, inhumane, or degrading treatment). Akuw a wɔato wɔn hintidua, te sɛ atubrafo (migrants) ne nnipa a wɔatu wɔn afi wɔn afie mu, mmusuakuw ne mmusuakuw nketewa (ethnic minorities), mmea (women), nna mu nnipa kakraa bi (sexual minorities), ne wɔn a wɔwɔ HIV no, yɛ mmerɛw (vulnerable) titiriw sɛ wobebu nnipa hokwan ahorow so wɔ akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe ahorow mu. Sɛ nhwɛso no, wobetumi akyekyɛ mmusuakuw ne mmusuakuw nketewa mu akɔ ayaresabea ahorow a ɛnyɛ papa mu, wobetumi asiw mmubuafo ano na wɔama wɔn nnuru wɔ ahoɔden so, wɔapow wɔn a wɔnom nnubɔne no ayaresa a wɔde ma wɔn a wɔnom nnubɔne, wobetumi ahyɛ mmea ma wɔayɛ wɔn awotwaa mu nhwehwɛmu na wɔapow wɔn sɛ wontu nyinsɛn a egye nkwa, wosusuw sɛ wɔyɛ mmarima a wɔne wɔn ho da wobetumi ahyɛ mmarima ma wɔayɛ wɔn akyi nhwehwɛmu, na wɔde ahoɔden (forcibly sterilized) ahyɛ mmea a wɔwɔ akuw a wɔato wɔn hintidua mu ne wɔn a wɔsakra wɔn bɔbeasu mu.

Hokwan ahorow a ɔdemafo wɔ no bi ne: hokwan a wɔwɔ sɛ wonya adwumayɛ tebea (working conditions) horow a ɛfata, hokwan a wɔwɔ sɛ wɔbɔ fekuw wɔ ahofadi mu, ne hokwan a wɔwɔ sɛ wɔpow sɛ wɔbɛyɛ adeyɛ bi a egyina wɔn abrabɔ pa so. Akwahosan ho adwumayɛfo taa hyia hokwan ahorow a wobu so. Sɛ nhwɛso no, titiriw wɔ aman a mmara nniso a ɛyɛ mmerɛw mu no, wɔtaa hyɛ akwahosan ho adwumayɛfo ma wɔyɛ akwan horow a ɛpow wɔn abrabɔ pa, wɔpow akuw a wɔato wɔn hintidua no ɔhwɛ gyinapɛn a eye sen biara, wobu ayarefo kokoamsɛm so, na wɔde nsɛmmɔnedi a wɔde tia adesamma ne ayayade sie. Bio nso, wɔtaa taa wɔn a wɔde mmoa ma a wɔmfa nhyɛso ahorow yi nhyɛ wɔn so no. Mprempren, titiriw wɔ United States no, akyinnyegye pii twa asɛm a ɛfa "ɔdemafo adwene" ho, a ɛkura hokwan a wɔn a wɔde mmoa ma no wɔ sɛ wɔtwe wɔn ho fi akwan horow a ɛne wɔn abrabɔ pa ho mmara nhyia te sɛ nyinsɛn a wotu gu ho.

Mmara mu nsakrae sɛ ɔkwan a wɔfa so ko tia na wɔasiw ayarefo ne wɔn a wɔde mmoa ma no hokwan ahorow a wobu so no ano no de ɔkwan a ɛhyɛ bɔ ba. Nanso, wɔ aman a wɔresakra mu (aman a wɔatew no foforo a wɔreyɛ nsakrae - newly formed countries undergoing reform), ne mmeae afoforo a mmara nniso a ɛyɛ mmerɛw no, betumi ayɛ nea anohyeto wom. Wɔayɛ nneɛma ne nnwinnade a wɔde bɛma mmaranimfo, wɔn a wɔde mmoa ma, ne ayarefo a wɔn ani gye ho sɛ wɔbɛma nnipa hokwan ahorow atu mpɔn wɔ ayarefo hwɛ mu.

Hokwan a ɛwɔ mmara mu wɔ akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe mu (Constitutional right to health care)

Bebree  mmarahyɛ bagua ahorow gye hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan tom mprempren. Ɛtɔ da bi a, saa hokwan ahorow yi yɛ nea ɛfata, a ɛkyerɛ sɛ wobetumi de asɛm adi wɔ asɛnnibea. Nokwarem no, adeyɛ bi a ɛrekɔ so wɔ mmarahyɛ bagua mu nsakrae mu wɔ wiase nyinaa ne sɛ wɔbɛma hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan no agye ntini na wɔama ayɛ nea ɛfata. U.S. yɛ nea ɛyɛ soronko wɔ saa nneɛma yi ho, anyɛ yiye koraa no wɔ aban mpanyimfo gyinabea. Ne nyinaa mu no, ɔsatu ahorow akɔ so wɔ U.S. a wɔrehwehwɛ sɛ wɔbɛboa ma wɔagye hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan tom wɔ mmarahyɛ bagua mu. Baabi a mmarahyɛ bagua ahorow gye hokwan a ɛfata sɛ wonya akwahosan tom ampa no, mmuae a asennibea ahorow de mae no adi afra.

Wɔ afe 2022 mu no, Oregon bɛyɛɛ ɔman a ɛdi kan a ɛnam Oregon Ballot Measure 111 so hyɛɛ mmara kwan so hokwan a ɛfa akwahosan ho.

Ka tia (Criticism)

Philip Barlow kyerɛw sɛ ɛnsɛ sɛ wobu akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe sɛ onipa hokwan esiane sɛ ɛyɛ den sɛ wɔbɛkyerɛkyerɛ nea ɛhwehwɛ mu ne baabi a ɛsɛ sɛ wɔde ‘gyinabea a ɛba fam' a ɛfa hokwan ahorow a ɛwɔ hokwan no ase ho no si hɔ nti. Bio nso, Barlow kyerɛ sɛ hokwan ahorow de asɛyɛde ahorow si afoforo so sɛ wɔbɛbɔ wɔn ho ban anaasɛ wɔbɛbɔ wɔn ho ban, na ɛnyɛ nea ɛda adi pefee sɛ hena na ɔwɔ asetra mu asɛyɛde wɔ hokwan a ɔwɔ sɛ onya akwahosan ho. John Berkeley, a ɔne Barlow yɛ adwene no, kasa tia bio sɛ hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan no nsusuw asɛyɛde a ɛsɛ sɛ ankorankoro wɔ sɛ okura n’ankasa akwahosan mu no ho yiye.

Richard D Lamm gye akyinnye denneennen tia akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe a wɔbɛma ayɛ hokwan. Ɔkyerɛkyerɛ hokwan mu sɛ nea ɛsɛ sɛ wɔbɔ ho ban ɔkwan biara so, ne adwene a atemmu nhyehyɛe no kyerɛkyerɛ mu na ɛkyerɛ ase. Akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe a wɔbɛma ayɛ hokwan no bɛhwehwɛ sɛ aban ahorow sɛe wɔn ahonyade no fa kɛse de ma wɔn manfo. Ɔsi so dua sɛ akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe no gyina mfomso a wosusuw sɛ nneɛma a anohyeto nni mu no so. Nneɛma kakraa bi na ɛmma aban ahorow ntumi mfa akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe a ɛfata mma obiara, titiriw wɔ bere tenten mu. Sɛ wɔbɔ mmɔden sɛ wɔde akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe a "mfaso" bɛma nnipa a wɔde nneɛma kakraa bi di dwuma nyinaa a, ebetumi ama sikasɛm asɛe. Lamm si so dua sɛ akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe a wobenya nanso ɛyɛ ɔfa ketewaa bi wɔ ɔman a ɛwɔ apɔwmuden a wɔbɛma aba mu, na sɛ wɔbɛbɔ ɔman a ɛwɔ apɔwmuden a, ɛsɛ sɛ wɔsɛe nneɛma nso wɔ asetra mu nneɛma ho.

Ɔkasatia foforo a wɔkasa tia hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan ne sɛ ɛrentumi nyɛ yiye. Imre J. P. Loefler, a na anka ɔyɛ Nairobi Ayaresabea Nsɛm a Wɔkae (Nairobi Hospital Proceedings) samufo na ɔtaa boa Britania Aduruyɛ Ho Nsɛmma Nhoma (British Medical Journal), no kyerɛ sɛ sikasɛm ne nhyehyɛe mu adesoa a ɛwɔ akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe a wɔhwɛ ma obiara so no yɛ nea wontumi nnya, na nneɛma a wɔde di dwuma no ma ɛnyɛ nokware sɛ wobebu hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ ɔbɛma obi nkwa nna akyɛ daa no bem . Mmom no, Loefler kyerɛ sɛ wɔnam asetra ne sikasɛm nhyehyɛe so di botae a ɛne sɛ wɔbɛma ɔmanfo akwahosan atu mpɔn no ho dwuma yiye sen hokwan a wɔde ma wɔ akwahosan ho wɔ ɔkwan a ɛfata so.

Hwɛ eyi nso

• Akwahosan ne Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ (nsɛmma nhoma) - Health and Human Rights (journal).
• Akwahosan ho nkɔso (Health promotion)
• Akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe titiriw (Primary health care)
• Amansan nyinaa akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe (Universal health care)

Abɔnten so nkitahodi ahorow

• Nokwasɛm Krataa a Wɔaka abom WHO/OHCHR/323
• Hokwan a Ɛwɔ Akwahosan Ho cartoon
• Hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ ɔwɔ akwahosan wɔ Mmofra Hokwan Ho Portal no so
• Nsɛm a Wɔkae a Ɛto so 14. Hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan gyinapɛn a ɛkorɔn sen biara a wobetumi anya CESCR, afe 2000 mu
• Hokwan a ɛwɔ akwahosan ho ne Europa Asetra mu Mmara Ɔkyerɛwfo Dwumadibea a ɛwɔ ESC, 2009
• Hokwan a Wɔwɔ sɛ Onya Akwahosan: Nokwasɛm Krataa a Ɛto so 31 WHO ne UN HCHR
• 25 Nsɛmmisa & Mmuae a Ɛfa Akwahosan ne Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ Ho, WHO

Nhoma ahorow a wɔahyehyɛ (Bibliography)

• Andrew Clapham, Mary Robinson (eds), Hokwan a Wɔwɔ sɛ Wonya Akwahosan a Wohu, Zurich: rüffer & rub, 2009.
• Bogumil Terminski, Nwoma a Wɔapaw a ɛfa Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ wɔ Akwahosan ho, Geneva: Geneva Suapɔn, 2013.
• Judith Paula Asher, Hokwan a Wɔwɔ sɛ Ɔnya Akwahosan: Nneɛma a Wɔde Yɛ Ngos, Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2010. me