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Ɔman Nkyekyereɛ (Nation Building)

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Ɔman nkyekyereɛ yɛ kwan anaa nhyenhyɛeɛ bi a yɛnam ɔman tumi so de da ɔman no su adi.[1][2] Ɔman nkyekyereɛ botaeɛ ne sɛ ɛbɛma nnipa a wɔwɔ ɔman no mu no ayɛ baako sɛdeɛ ɛbɛyɛ a ɔman no amannyɔsɛm bɛtim na atena hɔ daa. Sɛdeɛ Harris Mylonas kyerɛ a, "Tumidie a mmara bata ho wɔ ɛnnɛ mmerɛ yi mu amanmuo mu ɛne kabi-ma-menka-bi amanmuo wɔ twaka. Ɔman nkyekyereɛ yɛ ɔkwan a wɔfa so ɛde yɛ saa nnipa dodoɔ yi dwumadie nhyehyeɛ."[3] Wɔ Harris Mylonas nhyehyɛeɛ mu no, "ɔman atitiriw de ɔman nkabɔm ho nhyehyɛeɛ mmiɛnsa di dwuma: daberɛ, nteaseɛ a wɔde wɔn ho hyɛ mu, ne nea wɔayi wɔn ho fi mu."[4]

Ɔman nkyekyereɛ yɛ ɔman bi a ɛmu nnipa fa aban nhyehyɛeɛ so ma ɔman no mu nnipa nya  nkɔsoɔ, ebi ne asraafoɔ a wɔbɛgye wɔn ne ɔman no nhyehyeɛ a wɔwɔ ma nnipa dodoɔ nimdeeɛ a ɛfa nnwomasua ho.[5][6][7] Ɔman nkyekyereɛ bɛtumi ayɛ nsɛmmɔnedie anaa nnwuma atitiriw a wɔde bɛyɛ adwuma de aboa ama asetena mu nkɔsoɔ ne sikasɛm nso akɔ n'anim. Sɛnea Columbia Sukuupɔn mu asetena ho ɔbenfo Andreas Wimmer kyerɛ no, nneɛma mmiɛnsa na ɛtaa kyerɛ sɛdeɛ ɔman nkyekyereɛ no bɛdi nkonim wɔ berɛ tenten mu: "ɔmanfoɔ ahyehyɛdeɛ ahodoɔ a ɛba ntɛm, ɔman a ɛtumi de ɔmanfoɔ nneɛma kɔ aman foforɔ so ma pɛpɛɛyɛ ba , ne kwan a wɔfa so di nkitahodie ma nkabɔm ba."[8][9][10]

Tɔfabɔ

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A postcard from 1916 showing national personifications of some of the Allies of World War I, each holding a national flag

Wɔ nnɛ berɛ yi mu no, ɔman nkyekyereɛ kyerɛ ɔman a abɔ ne ho mmɔden anya fahodie na ɔnhyɛ ɔman biara ase, sɛ wɔbɛyɛ nhyehyɛeɛ ahodoɔ a wobɛtumi de wɔn ho ato soɔ a ɛfa ɔman no ho, nhomasua, asraafoɔ ahobammɔ, abatoɔ, asase ho nsɛm a yɛkyerɛw to hɔ, nneɛma a wɔde fi amannɔne ba ho amanneɛbɔ, ɛne/anaa amannɔne dwadie. Afei saa aman a wɔayɛ nsakraeɛ yi bɛtumi abɛyɛ ɔman ahyehyɛdeɛ a ɛtumi yɛ adwuma na ɛdi ne ho so.[11]

Ɔman nkyekyereɛ nso ka ɔman no nneɛma bi ho te sɛ frankaa, "coats of arms", nnwom, ɔman nna, ɔman agorɔdibea, ɔman wiemhyɛn adwumayɛkuw, ɔman kasa, ne ɔman anansesɛm a wɔto.[12][13] Wɔ ɔfa a ɛmu dɔ mu no, wɔbɛtumi ahyɛ da ahyehyɛ mmusuakuo ahodoɔ bi su amma wɔn abɛyɛ sɛ ɔman bi no, ne titiriw esiane sɛ wɔ aman foforɔ pii mu no na atubrafoɔ nneyɛeɛ a ɛfa mpaapaemu ne nnisɔ ho no amma nnipa dodoɔ no ara ɛsono mmusuakuo a wɔbɔ.[14]

Nteaseɛ a ɛwɔ ɔman nkyekyereɛ dwumadie ho no, sikasɛm ne asetena mu nneɛma nyinaa wɔ nsusuansoɔ.[10] Tebea ahodoɔ na ɛma amanaman ahodoɔ nya nkɔsoɔ wɔ mmerɛ ne mmeaeɛ ahodoɔ mu. Wɔakyerɛ sɛ nnipa atitiriw ne nnipadɔm a wɔwɔ Great Britain, France, ne United States nya kɔɔ wɔn anim nkakrankakra de wɔn ho bɔɔ aman foforɔ ho berɛ a wɔde saa aman no sii hɔ no na ɔmampɛ nyaa nkɔsoɔ berɛ a nnipa pii tumi de wɔn ho hyɛɛ amammusɛm mu na wo nyaa ɔmanfoɔ nneɛma a na wɔde gye toɔ no.

Na aman foforɔ pii haw wɔ cronyism (wɔn nyinaa a wɔayi wɔn afi mu gye nnamfoɔ); adifudepɛ a ɛsɛe ahotosoɔ; ne mmusuakuw mu nyiyim (akansie a ɛda mmusuakuw ntam wɔ ɔman no mu). Ɛtɔ mmerɛ bi a na ɛkame ayɛ sɛ wɔpaapae wɔn mu, te sɛ mmɔden a Biafra bɔeɛ sɛ ɛbɛtew ne ho afi Nigeria ho wɔ afe apem ahankron ne aduoson (1970) mu, anaasɛ Somaliafo a wɔkɔɔ so hwehwɛɛ sɛ wobenya fahodie koraa wɔ Ogaden mantam mu wɔ Ethiopia no. Rwanda mmusuakuw asetɔreɛ no, ne ɔhaw ahodoɔ a Sudan hyia mpɛn pii no nso betumi abata mmusuakuw, nyamesom, anaa mmusuakuw ntam baakoyɛ a ɛnni ɔman no mu ho. Mpɛn pii no ɛda adi sɛ ɛyɛ den sɛ wɔbɛka aman a wofi mmusuakuw korɔ mu nanso ɛsono atubrafo asetena mu no abom.[15]

Ebi a ɛbɛyɛ den titiriw sɛ wobedi kasa mu nsonsonoeɛ so wɔ ɔman kyekye nhyehyɛe no mu.[16] Bere a ebinom bu Cameroon sɛ ɛyɛ nkonimdi ho nhwɛso no, mpaapaemu reba wɔ Anglophone haw no mu. Nkonimdi te sɛ Senegam

bia Apam no da ɔhaw ahorow a ɛwɔ Francophone ne Anglophone nsasesin a wɔbɛka abom mu adi.[17][18]

Nsɛmfua a wɔde di dwuma: Ɔman kɛseɛ nkyekyereɛ ne ɔman ketewa nkyekyereɛ

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Sɛdeɛ ɛteɛ no, adwene mu ntatawa abɛda nsɛmfua ɔman kɛseɛ nkyekyereɛ ne ɔman nketewa nkyekyereɛ a wɔde di dwuma no ntam (ɛtɔ mmerɛ bi a wɔde nsɛmfua no di dwuma de sesa wɔn ho wɔn ho wɔ Amerika Atifi fam). Wɔn baanu no nyinaa wɔ nkyerɛaseɛ a ɛyɛ teatea na ɛsono emu biara nso nkyereaseɛ a ɛwɔ amammuisɛm mu, kane no na ɛkyerɛ ɔman nipasu, na afei ɛkyerɛ nneɛma a wɔde yɛ adwuma, ne ɔman no ahyehyɛdeɛ ahodoɔ. Adwenekyerɛ ahodoɔ bebree na akɔso wɔ adwenekyerɛ sukuu mmienu mu a ɛsono obiara nteaseɛ a ɔwɔ fa ɔman ketewa nkyekyereɛ ho. Nea di kan (ɛkɔ so wɔ amanneɛbɔ mu) da ɔman ɔman ketewa nkyekyereɛ adi sɛ adeɛ a amannɔne aman de wɔn ho agye mu. Deɛ ɛto so mmienu (a afi nhomasua mu dodoɔ no ara na ama amanaman ahodoɔ nso agye atomu kɛseɛ) hu ɔman nkyekyereɛ sɛ ɛyɛ adeɛ a ɛyɛ ɔmanfoɔ no dea. Sɛ wopɛ nkyerɛkyerɛmu no ho nteaseɛ a, hwɛ ɔman-nkyekyereɛ, Carolyn Stephenson asɛm no,[20] ne nkrataa a Whaites, CPC/IPA anaa ODI kyerɛw a wɔatwe yɛn adwene asi so wɔ ase ha.[19]

Deɛ ama nsɛmfua a wɔde di dwuma no ɛyɛ basaa no kyerɛ sɛ nnansa yi ara, aman nkyekyereɛ abɛyɛ adeɛ a wɔde di dwuma wɔ tebea foforo koraa mu, a ɛfa deɛ wɔn a wɔkamfo no aka ho asɛm tiawa sɛ "akodie a wɔde di dwuma wɔ ɔko akyi de gyina nsakraeɛ a ɛtena hɔ daa a ɛkɔ demokrase mu no".[20] Wɔ saa nteaseɛ yi mu no, ɔman kɛseɛ nkyekyereɛ, a wɔfrɛ no ɔman a ketewa nkyekyereɛ no kyerɛkyerɛ mmɔden a amannɔne tumi bi hyɛ da bɔ sɛ wɔbɛkyekyere anaa wɔde ɔman ahyehyɛdeɛ ahodoɔ bɛsi hɔ, sɛdeɛ nhwɛsoɔ bi a ebia amannɔne tumi no nim no yie nanso wɔtaa bu no sɛ ɛyɛ amannɔne de na ɛma ɛyɛ basaa.[21] Wɔ saa ntease yi mu no, ɔman nkyekyereɛ no taa yɛ deɛ wɔde sika pii gu mu, asraafoɔ a wɔfa wɔn adwumam, aban nsakraeɛ berɛ, ne nsɛmmɔnedie a wɔde di dwuma de ka aban nhyehyɛeɛ asɛm ho.[22][23]

Dwuma a nhomasua di

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Wɔtaa gye di sɛ mfitiaseɛ sukuu nhyehyɛeɛ a wɔatrɛw mu no yɛ ade titiriw a ɛde ɔman kyekye nhyehyɛeɛ no ba.[24] Europa sodifoɔ a na wɔwɔ afe ɔha a ɛto so 19 mu no de wɔn ho too mfitiaseɛ sukuu a ɔman no di so de kyerɛkyerɛɛ wɔn a wɔhyɛ wɔn ase no kasa baako, nipasu a wɔbom yɛ, ne ayɛyɛdeɛ ne nokwaredie ho adwene ma nnisɔ ba. Wɔ Prussia no, wɔde mfitiaseɛ nwomasua a nnipa pii bɛba de ahyɛ "nokwaredi, osetie ne ahofama a wɔde ma Ɔhene no" ho nkuran. Saa gyidi ahorow yi a ɛfa tumi a nhomasua ho wɔ nokwaredie a wɔde ma ɔhene no, aman a wɔwɔ wiase mmeae afoforɔ nso gye tomu, wɔ tebea horow a ɛnyɛ demokrase ne demokrase nyinaa mu. Amanneɛbɔ ahodoɔ a ɛfa sukuu ahodoɔ a ɛwɔ Soviet Union hɔ no kyerɛkyerɛ nokwasɛm a ɛyɛ sɛ ɛnyɛ nhomasua mu nsɛm ne ahokokwaw nko na nhomasua nhyehyɛeɛ ahodoɔ a aban boa no sii so dua, na mmom na ɛkyerɛkyerɛ “ɔman ho dɔ ne mmɔborohunu a wonni mma ɔtamfoɔ, atirimɔdensɛm a wɔde di nsɛnnennen so nkonim, dade ntoasoɔ, ne ɔdɔ nso.”[25][26]

Beaeɛ a menyaa mmoa firiiɛ

[sesa]
  1. ↑ Karl Wolfgang Deutsch, William J. Folt, eds, Nation Building in Comparative Contexts, New York, Atherton, 1966.
  2. ↑ Mylonas, Harris (2017),"Nation-building," Oxford Bibliographies in International Relations. Ed. Patrick James. New York: Oxford University Press.
  3. ↑ Mylonas, Harris (2012). The Politics of Nation-Building: Making Co-Nationals, Refugees, and Minorities. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-1107661998.
  4. ↑ Mylonas, Harris (2012). The Politics of Nation-Building: Making Co-Nationals, Refugees, and Minorities. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. xx. ISBN 978-1107661998.
  5. ↑ Keith Darden and Harris Mylonas. 2016. "Threats to Territorial Integrity, National Mass Schooling, and Linguistic Commonality," Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 49, No. 11: 1446-1479.
  6. ↑ Keith Darden and Anna Grzymala-Busse. 2006. "The Great Divide: Literacy, Nationalism, and the Communist Collapse." World Politics, Volume 59 (October): 83-115.
  7. ↑ Barry Posen. 1993. "Nationalism, the Mass Army and Military Power," International Security, 18(2): 80-124.
  8. ↑ Wimmer, Andreas (2018). "Nation Building: Why Some Countries Come Together While Others Fall Apart". Survival. 60 (4): 151–164. doi:10.1080/00396338.2018.1495442. ISSN 0039-6338. S2CID 158766905.
  9. ↑ Wimmer, Andreas (2018). Nation Building. Princeton University Press. doi:10.1515/9781400888894. ISBN 978-1-4008-8889-4. S2CID 240305736.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Mylonas, Harris; Tudor, Maya (11 May 2021). "Nationalism: What We Know and What We Still Need to Know". Annual Review of Political Science. 24 (1): 109–132. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-101841.
  11. ↑ Connor, Walker (18 July 2011). "Nation-Building or Nation-Destroying?". World Politics. 24 (3): 319–355. doi:10.2307/2009753. JSTOR 2009753. S2CID 154407042.
  12. ↑ Hippler, Jochen, ed. (2005). Nation-building: a key concept for peaceful conflict transformation?. translated by Barry Stone. London: Pluto. ISBN 978-0745323367.
  13. ↑ Smith, Anthony. 1986. "State-Making and Nation-Building" in John Hall (ed.), States in History. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 228–263.
  14. ↑ Harris Mylonas. 2010. "Assimilation and its Alternatives: Caveats in the Study of Nation-Building Policies", In Rethinking Violence: States and Non-State Actors in Conflict, eds. Adria Lawrence and Erica Chenoweth. BCSIA Studies in International Security, MIT Press.
  15. ↑ Achankeng, Fonkem (2014). "The Foumban "Constitutional" Talks and Prior Intentions of Negotiating: A Historico-Theoretical Analysis of a False Negotiation and the Ramications for Political Developments in Cameroon". Journal of Global Initiatives: Policy, Pedagogy, Perspective. 9: 149.
  16. ↑ Mylonas, Harris; Tudor, Maya (11 May 2021). "Nationalism: What We Know and What We Still Need to Know". Annual Review of Political Science. 24 (1): 109–132. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-101841.
  17. ↑ Richmond, Edmun B. (1993). "Senegambia and the Confederation: History, Expectations, and Disillusions". Journal of Third World Studies. 10 (2): 172–194. JSTOR 45193442. Retrieved 28 September 2021.
  18. ↑ Awasom, Nicodemus Fru (2003–2004). "Anglo-Saxonism and Gallicism in Nation Building in Africa: The Case of Bilingual Cameroon and the Senegambia Confederation in Historical and Contemporary Perspective". Afrika Zamani. 11–12.
  19. ↑ Stephenson, Carolyn (January 2005). "Nation Building". Beyond Intractability. Retrieved 27 June 2018.
  20. ↑ Dobbins, James, Seth G. Jones, Keith Crane, and Beth Cole DeGrasse. 2007. The Beginner's Guide to Nation-Building. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation.
  21. ↑ Darden, Keith; Mylonas, Harris (1 March 2012). "The Promethean Dilemma: Third-party State-building in Occupied Territories". Ethnopolitics. 11 (1): 85–93. doi:10.1080/17449057.2011.596127. S2CID 145382064.
  22. ↑ Fukuyama, Francis. January/February 2004. "State of the Union: Nation-Building 101", Atlantic Monthly.
  23. ↑ Fukuyama, Francis, ed. (2006). Nation-building: Beyond Afghanistan and Iraq ([Online-Ausg.] ed.). Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0801883347.
  24. ↑ Keith Darden and Harris Mylonas. 2016. "Threats to Territorial Integrity, National Mass Schooling, and Linguistic Commonality," Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 49, No. 11: 1446-1479.
  25. ↑ cited in US Dept of State 1954, 134 (in Paglayan 2021)
  26. ↑ Paglayan, Agustina S. (February 2021). "The Non-Democratic Roots of Mass Education: Evidence from 200 Years". American Political Science Review. 115 (1): 179–198. doi:10.1017/S0003055420000647. ISSN 0003-0554.
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