The Repatriation of Djenne Statues to Mali

Wɔatwerɛ nsɛm wei Asante Twi mu

Djenné ahonie no a wɔsan de aba Mali no yɛ asɛm titiriw wɔ wiase nyinaa dwumadie a wɔde resan de amammerɛ ho agyapadeɛ a wɔabɔ apo na wɔayi no afi hɔ kɔ wɔn man mu no mu. Saa ahoni yi a wɔde dɔteɛ ayɛ a ɛfiri Niger Delta mantam a ɛwɔ Mali no mu, ne titire abakɔsɛm mu kurow Djenné ho no ka tetefo nneɛma a ɛsom bo paa a ɛwɔ Afrika Atɔe fam no ho. Wɔn a wɔsan bae no nyɛ mmirikatufoɔ nkonimdie ara kwa, na mmom ɛyɛ amammerɛ ne honhom fam agyapadeɛ a ɛwɔ Mali a na nnɛɛdɛe ne nnwumakuo a wɔtɔn nnipa wɔ ɛnnɛ mmerɛ yi mu asɛe no.

Djenné Ahoni Ho Abakɔsɛm Ne Amammerɛ Ho Nsɛm

Anyɛ yiye koraa no, ɛfiri afe 250 A.Y.B. mu na nnipa atra Djenné, kurow a wonim sɛ ɛyɛ tete kurow a ɛwɔ Afrika a ɛwɔ Sahara anafoɔ fam no mu baako. Ɔmantam no agye din wɔ tetefo nneɛma a wɔatutu fam ahu no ho, titire ahoni a wɔde dɔte ayɛ a wɔyɛɛ no wɔ afeha a ɛto so 9 ne 15 Y.B. mu no. Wɔkyerɛ sɛ na saa ahoni yi yɛ nnipa, mmoa, anaa mmoa a wɔakeka wɔn ho a wɔtaa gyina hɔ ma nnipa a wɔwɔ tebea ahorow mu, na na wɔwɔ honhom fam, ayiyɛ, anaa sɛnkyerɛnne kwan so mfasoɔ wɔ nnipa a na wɔte Niger Asase mu Delta no mu ansa na Islam reba no mu^[1].

Ahoni no da adwinni ne amammerɛ a emu dɔ a na ɛwɔ tete Afrika Atɔe fam amammerɛ mu no adi. Awerɛhosɛm ne sɛ, wɔ afeha a ɛto so 20 no mu no, na wɔhwehwɛ wɔn ho nneɛma pii wɔ wiase adwinni aguadi mu. Eyi maa nnipa pii sisii tete nnoɔma a wɔatutu fam ahu no, titire wɔ afe 1970 ne 1980 mu, na wɔde tete nnoɔma mpempem pii firii Mali kɔɔ aman foforɔ so wɔ mmara kwan so^[2].

Adwumayɛ ne Amanaman Ntam adwadie a mmara mma kwan

Wɔ afeha a ɛto so 20 no mfinimfini no, na Djenné ahoni no mu ɔhaha pii akɔhyɛ ankorɛankorɛ nnwumakuo ne nnwumakuo mu wɔ Europa ne Amerika Atifi fam, a mpɛn pii no na wɔnni baabi a wɔfiri anaa nkrataa a ɛfata. Wɔsɛee tetefoɔ atenae a na akorɔmfo a wɔhwehwɛ tete nneɛma a ɛsom bo no asɛe abakɔsɛm mu nsɛm a na ɛho hia ma nyansahu mu adesua, bere a wɔmaa Mali nyaa amammerɛ mu agyapadeɛ a na ayɛ mmerɛ no^[3]. Nnwumakuo a wɔtɔn nnoɔma wɔ adwadie mu wɔ aman ahodoɔ so, ne wɔn a wɔtɔ nnoɔma no, na wɔdi dwuma titire wɔ adwadie a mmara mma kwan yi mu, na mpɛn pii no, wɔyɛ anibiannaso wɔ baabi a saa nneɛma no fi a asɛm wɔ ho no.

Eyi nti, wɔ 1970 mfe no mu no, Mali fii ase de mmara a ɛbɔ ɔman no ho ban no yɛɛ adwuma, na ɛno akyi no, wɔde wɔn nsa hyɛɛ 1970 UNESCO Nhyehyɛe a ɛbara amammerɛ mu agyapade a wɔde ba ɔman foforo so, a wɔde kɔ amannɔne, ne nea wɔde kɔ aman foforo so a mmara mma kwan no ase. Ɛmfa ho eyi nyinaa no, mmara a wɔhyɛe no yɛ mmerɛw, na basabasayɛ kɔɔ so wɔ afe 1990 ne 2000 no mu.

Mmɔden a Wɔbɔ sɛ Wɔbɛsan Akɔ Wɔn Asase So ne Deɛ Wotumi Yɛ

Nkonimdie a ɛho hia sen biara no mu baako bae wɔ afe 1996 mu berɛ a United States ne Mali yɛɛ apam bi wɔ U.S. Convention on Cultural Property Implementation Act, a wɔde nneɛma a wɔde fi tetefo nneɛma mu a efi Mali, a Djenné terracotta ahoni ka ho^[4]. Nkɔmmɔbɔ a ɛtete saa ne amanaman ntam nhyɛsoɔ a ɛkɔɔ so no maa ahyehyɛdeɛ ahodoɔ ne wɔn a wɔboaboa nnoɔma ano no san gyee nnoɔma no bi.

Wɔ asɛm bi a ɛho hia paa a esii wɔ afe 2007 mu no, France atumfoɔ no kyeree Djenné ahoni pii a na wɔde rekɔ baabi a mmara mma ho kwan no, na akyiri yi wɔsan de wɔn kɔɔ Mali bere a wɔhwehwɛɛ mmara mu na wɔne wɔn yɛɛ apam no^[5]. Nnansa yi ara, wɔ afe 2022 mu no, Musée du quai Branly a ɛwɔ Paris no de Djenné terracotta ahoni 16 maa Mali wɔ Francefo nhyehyɛeɛ a ɛse sɛ wɔde Afrika agyapadeɛ no bɛsan ama no ase^[6]^[7].

Wɔde mmara mu nhyehyɛe, amanne a amanfo bɔ ho dawuru, ne abrabɔ pa ho adwene a emu yɛ den a na adawurubɔfo a wɔwɔ tete nneɛma akorae ahorow no kura wɔ wɔn nneɛma a wɔaboaboa ano no ho no na ɛmaa wotumi san kɔɔ wɔn kurom. UNESCO ne International Council of Museums (ICOM) aboa ma wɔatumi ayɛ nkɔmmɔbɔ, na wɔama aman nyinaa ahu sɛnea wɔsan de nneɛma a wɔsɛee no ma.

Deɛ Ɛkyerɛ wɔ Amammerɛ, Amanyɔsɛm, ne Ahyɛnsodeɛ Ho

Djenné ahoni no a wɔbɛsan de ama no nyɛ aban dwumadi bi kɛkɛ - ɛyɛ amammerɛ mu atɛntrenee ho adeyɛ a tumi wom. Wɔ Malifo, titiriw wɔn a wɔte Djenné mpɔtam hɔ no, ahoni no yɛ biribi a ɛfa wɔn nananom nimdeɛ, honhom mu gyidi ahorow, ne nnipa a na wɔte hɔ ansa na wɔn ase retɔre ho^[8]. Wɔn a wɔsan ba no ma ɔman no yɛ ahantan, ɛhyɛ amammerɛ mu ahyehyɛdeɛ ahodoɔ mu den, na ɛboa ma wɔsan kyekye abakɔsɛm a na atete no mu no.

Bio nso, wɔ tebea a wɔabɛhyia amammuisɛm mu basabasayɛ, amumɔyɛsɛm, ne agyapadeɛ sɛe (te sɛ Timbuktu) no mu no, saa nsiesie yi yɛ adeyɛ a ɛma amammerɛ gyinabea yɛ papa. Seesei wɔde ahoni no gu ɔman no tete nneɛma akorae, te sɛ National Museum of Mali wɔ Bamako, baabi a wobetumi de wɔn asie, asua wɔn ho ade, na wɔakyerɛ ho anisɔ wɔ wɔn amammerɛ mu.

Ɔhaw ne Akwan a Yɛbɛfa So

Ɛmfa ho nkɔso ahodoɔ yi no, ɔhaw da so wɔ hɔ. Djenné ahoni pii da so ara wɔ aman foforo so, na ebinom wɔ hɔ a ankorankoro bi a wɔmpɛ sɛ wɔsan de wɔn ba wɔn man mu no na wɔhyɛ wɔn nsa. Afei nso, ntɔkwaw a ɛrekɔ so ne nnwumakuw a wonni sika pii nti, ɛyɛ den ma Mali sɛ ɛbɛkora nneɛma a wɔde asie yi so na ama wɔanya ahobammɔ. Enti, ɛho hia sɛ amanaman ntam adwumayɛfo bom yɛ adwuma, na ɛnyɛ sɛ wɔde nkurɔfo bɛkɔ wɔn man mu kɛkɛ, na mmom sɛ wɔbɛboa wɔn ma wɔatumi ayɛ tete nneɛma akorae, wɔatumi ayɛ tete nneɛma mu nhwehwɛmu, na wɔatumi akyerɛkyerɛ wɔn ma wɔahu wɔn agyapade.

Bio nso, asɛmmisa a ɛfa sɛnea wɔbɛsan agye nneɛma no ho no ma wɔsɔre akyinnyegye a emu yɛ duru wɔ nniso abakɔsɛm, agyapade, ne nneɛma a wɔboaboa ano ho. Osuahu a Mali wɔ wɔ Djenné ahoni ho no kyerɛ sɛnea nsiesie betumi ayɛ ɔkwan a wɔfa so sa yare, siesie, na wɔsan kyerɛ sɛ Afrika yɛ obi a ɔhwɛ ma wɔkora n'atetesɛm so.

Mmoano

Djenné ahoni no a wɔsan de aba Mali no yɛ ade titiriw wɔ mmɔden a wiase nyinaa rebɔ sɛ wɔbɛsiesie ntɛnkyea a amammerɛ mu basabasayɛ ne aguadi a mmara mma ho kwan de aba no mu. Saa nneɛma yi, bere bi a woyii no fii wɔn asase so na woyii ne fa no fii hɔ no, wɔresan aba fie abɛka Malifo amammerɛ ho bio. Bere a ɔhaw ahorow no da so wɔ hɔ no, nkɔso a wɔanya de besi nnɛ no si tumi a amanaman ntam biakoyɛ, mmara mu nhyehyɛe, ne abrabɔ fam asɛyɛde wɔ Afrika agyapade a wɔde bɛkora so na wɔasan de asi hɔ so dua.

Baabi a menyaa mmoa firiiɛ

↑ Robert Gowing (2005-01), "Conservation of Ancient Sites on the Silk Road. Second International Conference on the Conservation of Grotto Sites: Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province, The People's Republic of China, 28 June–3 July 2004", Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 117–124, doi:10.1179/135050305793137503, ISSN 1350-5033, retrieved 2025-07-14 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
↑ Tsegaye Ebabey (2018-11-04), "The rock-hewn church of Nazugn Maryam: an example of the endangered antiquities of North Wallo, Ethiopia.", Journal of African Cultural Heritage Studies, vol. 1, no. 1, p. 1, doi:10.22599/jachs.34, ISSN 2513-8243, retrieved 2025-07-12
↑ Yavuz Yeğin (2020-08), "Philipp Pilhofer. 2018. Das frühe Christentum im kilikisch-isaurischen Bergland (Die Christender Kalykadnos-Region in den ersten fünf Jahrhunderten). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter; 978-3-11-057381-7 hardback £109.", Antiquity (in English), vol. 94, no. 376, pp. 1095–1097, doi:10.15184/aqy.2020.109, ISSN 0003-598X, retrieved 2025-07-14 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
↑ State Department, Agreement, Agreement Between the Government of the United States of America and the Governme, retrieved 2025-07-14
↑ Stephen K Urice, Gideon A Levy (2024-02-29), "Article 7(b)(ii) of the 1970 UNESCO Convention: Cooperation for the Return of Cultural Property", The 1970 UNESCO and 1995 UNIDROIT Conventions on Stolen or Illegally Transferred Cultural Property, Oxford University Press, pp. 245–261, ISBN 0-19-284688-4, retrieved 2025-07-14
↑ Mathilde Pavis, Andrea Wallace (2019), "Response to the 2018 Sarr-Savoy Report: Statement on Intellectual Property Rights and Open Access Relevant to the Digitization and Restitution of African Cultural Heritage and Associated Materials", SSRN Electronic Journal, doi:10.2139/ssrn.3378200, ISSN 1556-5068, retrieved 2025-07-14
↑ The Restitution of African Cultural Heritage. Toward a New Relational Ethics (in American English), archived from the original on 2021-08-15, retrieved 2025-07-14
↑ Irini A. Stamatoudi (2011-03-31), "Cultural Property and Restitution: The Theories of Cultural Nationalism and Cultural Internationalism", Cultural Property Law and Restitution, Edward Elgar Publishing, ISBN 978-0-85793-030-9, retrieved 2025-07-14

[1] Robert Gowing (2005-01), "Conservation of Ancient Sites on the Silk Road. Second International Conference on the Conservation of Grotto Sites: Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province, The People's Republic of China, 28 June–3 July 2004", Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 117–124, doi:10.1179/135050305793137503, ISSN 1350-5033, retrieved 2025-07-14 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[2] Tsegaye Ebabey (2018-11-04), "The rock-hewn church of Nazugn Maryam: an example of the endangered antiquities of North Wallo, Ethiopia.", Journal of African Cultural Heritage Studies, vol. 1, no. 1, p. 1, doi:10.22599/jachs.34, ISSN 2513-8243, retrieved 2025-07-12

[3] Yavuz Yeğin (2020-08), "Philipp Pilhofer. 2018. Das frühe Christentum im kilikisch-isaurischen Bergland (Die Christender Kalykadnos-Region in den ersten fünf Jahrhunderten). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter; 978-3-11-057381-7 hardback £109.", Antiquity (in English), vol. 94, no. 376, pp. 1095–1097, doi:10.15184/aqy.2020.109, ISSN 0003-598X, retrieved 2025-07-14 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[4] State Department, Agreement, Agreement Between the Government of the United States of America and the Governme, retrieved 2025-07-14

[5] Stephen K Urice, Gideon A Levy (2024-02-29), "Article 7(b)(ii) of the 1970 UNESCO Convention: Cooperation for the Return of Cultural Property", The 1970 UNESCO and 1995 UNIDROIT Conventions on Stolen or Illegally Transferred Cultural Property, Oxford University Press, pp. 245–261, ISBN 0-19-284688-4, retrieved 2025-07-14

[6] Mathilde Pavis, Andrea Wallace (2019), "Response to the 2018 Sarr-Savoy Report: Statement on Intellectual Property Rights and Open Access Relevant to the Digitization and Restitution of African Cultural Heritage and Associated Materials", SSRN Electronic Journal, doi:10.2139/ssrn.3378200, ISSN 1556-5068, retrieved 2025-07-14

[7] The Restitution of African Cultural Heritage. Toward a New Relational Ethics (in American English), archived from the original on 2021-08-15, retrieved 2025-07-14

[8] Irini A. Stamatoudi (2011-03-31), "Cultural Property and Restitution: The Theories of Cultural Nationalism and Cultural Internationalism", Cultural Property Law and Restitution, Edward Elgar Publishing, ISBN 978-0-85793-030-9, retrieved 2025-07-14

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