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Reparations for slavery in the United States

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Wɔatwerɛ nsɛm wei wɔ Asante Twi mu

Nkoasom Ho Mpatadeɛ Wɔ United States
reparations
facet ofslavery in the United States Sesa
 

Reparations for slavery yɛ adwene a ɛne sɛ wɔde akatua ho ka no di dwuma ma wɔn a wɔayɛ wɔn nkoa anaa wɔn asefo. Adwene ahoroɔ wɔ hɔ a ɛfa akatua ho wɔ mmara nyansapɛ mu ne akatua ho wɔ nsakraeɛ atɛntrenee mu. Wɔ U.S. no, wɔde nkoasom ho akatua ama denam mmara kwan so gyinaesi wɔ asɛnnibea ne/anaasɛ ankorɛankorɛ ne ahyehyɛdeɛ ahodoɔ firi wɔn pɛ mu (a asɛnnibea gyinaesi biara nni ho) so.[1][2]

Asɛm a edi kan a wɔatwerɛ ato hɔ a ɛfa nkoasom ho akatua ho wɔ United States ne kanee akoa Belinda Royall wɔ afe 1783 mu, a na ɛyɛ pɛnhyen sika, na efi saa berɛ no wɔda so ara hyɛ nyansa sɛ wɔmfa ntua wɔn ka. Ɛde besi ɛnnɛ no, wɔmfaa aban mmara biara a ɛfa akatua ho mmara biara mmae.[3] 1865 Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Acre aduanan ne afurum") ne mmɔden a wonim no yiye sen biara a wɔbɔe sɛ wɔbɛboa nkoa a wɔade wɔn ho foforɔ ma wɔde wɔn ho ahyɛ ɔmanfo mu na wɔaboaboa ahonyade ano.[4] Nanso, Ɔmanpanin Andrew Johnson danee saa ahyɛdeɛ yi, na ɔsan de asase no maa ne kanee Konfederate wuranom.

Akatua ayɛ adwene a ɛsan ba wɔ United States amammuonsɛm mu, nnansa yi ara wɔ afe 2020 Demokratik Parti ɔmanpanin akansi a edi kan no mu.[5] Ɔfrɛ a ɛne sɛ wɔmfa akatua no mu yɛɛ den wɔ afe 2020 mu, wɔ ɔsɔretia a wɔde tia polisifoɔ atirimɔdensɛm ne COVID-19 yaredɔm a abien no nyinaa kunkum Amerikafoɔ Abibifoɔ wɔ ɔkwan a ɛnsɛ so no mu.[6] Mpɛn pii no, abibifoɔ mpɔtam ne atwerɛfo na wɔfrɛ sɛ wontua mmusua mu nyiyim ne nyiyim a wɔyɛ wɔ U.S. no ka ka ɔfrɛ a ɛne sɛ wontua nkoasom ho ka no ho.[7][8][9][10] Adwene a ɛne sɛ wɔbɛtua wɔn ka no da so ara yɛ akyinnyegye kɛse, esiane nsemmisa ahodoɔ a ɛfa sɛnea wɔde bɛma, sika dodoɔ a wɔde bɛma, onii a obɛtua, ne onii a obɛgye ho nti.[11][12]

Akwan a wɔfa so tua ka a kuro, mantam, ɔman, ne ɔman aban anaa ankorankoro ahyehyɛdeɛ ahodoɔ ahyɛ ho nyansa wɔ United States no bi ne: ankorankoro sika a wotua, sika a wɔde besiesie, sika a wɔde ma, sika a wɔde tua ho ka, ne nhyehyɛeɛ mu nhyehyɛeɛ ahoroɔ a wɔde besi ntɛnkyea ano, akatua a egyina asase so a ɛfa ahofadi ho, kyɛwpa ne ntɛnkyea no a wogye tum, sɛnkyerɛnne kwan so nneɛma (te sɛ ɔdan bi a wɔbɛbɔ din de ato obi),[2] ne nkaedum ne mmɔnten a wɔde din ato nkoa wuranom ne wɔn a wɔbɔ nkoasom ho ban a woyi firi hɔ.[8][13]

Esiane sɛ ntɛnkyea ne nyiyimu foforɔ akɔ so firi berɛ a wɔberaa nkoasom wɔ U.S. nti,[14][15][16][17][18] abibifoɔ mpɔtam bi ne ahyehyɛdeɛ ahoroɔ a ɛhwɛ ɔmanfoɔ ho kwan ahoroɔ so aka sɛ wontua saa ntɛnkyea ahoroɔ no ho ka ne afei nso sɛ wontua wɔn ka a ɛfa nkoasom ho tẽẽ.[8][12] Ebinom kyerɛ sɛ U.S. afiase nhyehyɛeɛ no, a efiri ase firi nhyehyɛeɛ a wɔde ma wɔn a wɔabu wɔn fɔ no so na ɛkɔ so denam nnɛyi adwumakuo a aban na ɛwɔ so a wɔfrɛ no Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR) so no yɛ nnɛyi mmara kwan so nkoasom a ɛda so ara ka abibifoɔ ne nnipa nketewa afoforoɔ titiriw na ɛnsɛ denam ɔko a wɔde ko tia nnubɔne ne nea wɔakasa atia sɛ ɛyɛ nsukwan a wɔde firi sukuu kɔ afiase no so.[19]

U.S. abakɔsɛm mu nsɛm a ɛfa ho

[sesa]

Wɔ atubrafoɔ mmerɛ mu

Akyinnyegye a ɛfa akatua ho no firi afeha a ɛto so dunwɔtwe no mu tɔnn. Ɛkame ayɛ sɛ Quakerfoɔ a na wɔyɛ wɔn a wodii kan hwehwɛɛ sɛ wotu ase wɔ United States no bi de adwene koro sii so dua sɛ nkoa a wɔade wɔn ho no wɔ hokwan sɛ wonya akatua firi wɔn kane wuranom hɔ. Sɛ owura bi nuu ne ho wɔ bɔne a ɔyɛe sɛ ɔwɔ akoa a wɔde nneɛma gu mu a, ɛsɛ sɛ ɔpata no denam nsiesie a obesiesie so. Quakerfoɔ faa Deuteronomium nhoma a wɔhyɛɛ wuranom fo sɛ wɔne wɔn a na anka wɔyɛ nkoa nkyɛ wɔn nneɛma no mu asɛm kae.[20]:60

Wɔ Ɔman Anidan Ko no mu no, Warner Mifflin kamfoo kyerɛe sɛ wɔmfa sika mma wɔn a na anka wɔyɛ nkoa a wɔade wɔn ho no bio wɔ 1778 mu tɔnn, wɔ sika a wotua, asase, ne nnɔbae ho nhyehyɛe a wɔkyɛ mu.[21][22][23] Gary B. Nash kyerɛw sɛ, "ebia wɔbɛfrɛ no wɔ ɔkwan a ɛfata so sɛ Amerikafoɔ reparationism agya".[24][25]

Ansa na Ɔmanko no baeɛ no

Ansa na wɔretu nkoasom ase wɔ ɔman no mu wɔ afe 1865 mu no, wɔn a wɔpɛ sɛ wotu nkoasom ase no de nyansahyɛ ahoroɔ mae wɔ nea wobetumi anaasɛ ɛsɛ sɛ wɔyɛ de tua adwumayɛfoɔ a wɔde wɔn ayɛ nkoa no ka wɔ wɔn ahofadie akyi. Wɔ afe 1859 mfiase no, wɔ nwoma bi a wɔde hyiraa "Old Hero" John Brown so mu no, James Redpath kae sɛ ɔyɛ "reparationist", na ɔkyerɛ sɛ wɔ n'adwene mu no, ɛsɛ sɛ wɔde Apam no nsase ma nkoa dadaa no.[26]:vi Ɔsan nso fa anwensɛm bi a atwam, a William North kyerɛwee, a ɛkyerɛ "akwan a wɔfa so tua ka".[26]:188

Akyiri yi wɔ saa afe no mu, berɛ a wokum Brown akyi no, Redpath bɔɔ amanneɛ wɔ Brown asetra ho nsɛm a edi kan mu sɛ "na ɔnyɛ obi a ɔpɛ ahofadie ara kwa, na mmom obi a ɔpɛ sɛ wotua nneɛma ka. Na ogye di, ɛnyɛ sɛ ɛsɛ sɛ woyi nkoasom ho nsɛmmɔnedi no firi hɔ nko, na mmom ɛsɛ sɛ wotua mfomsoɔ a wɔayɛ akoa no ka. Nea ogye di no, ɔyɛɛ. Wɔ saa berɛ yi mu [Missouri raid, 1859], berɛ a ɔka kyerɛɛ nkoa no sɛ wɔde wɔn ho akyi no, obisaa wɔn sɛnea wɔn som no bo yɛ den, na—bere a wɔabua no—ɔkɔɔ so gyee agyapadeɛ koduruu sika dodoɔ a ɛsɛ sɛ abibifoɔ no wɔ saa kwan yi so no."[27]:220

Ná Ananmusifoɔ George W. Julian ne Thaddeus Stevens a wɔn baanu nyinaa yɛ Radical Republican kuo no mufoɔ no abɔ afrɛ deda sɛ wonnye nsase a wɔde mfuo yɛ no mfuo daa na wɔsan kyekyɛ bio.[28]:104

Rekɔnstrakhyen berɛ no

Akyinnyegyeɛ a ɛfa akatua ho no gyina nkɔmmɔbɔ a ɛkɔ so wɔ ɔkwan a ɛfata so a ɛfa akatua ahoroɔ pii ho, ne asase ho akatua ankasa a Amerikafoɔ a wɔyɛ abibifoɔ nyae a akyiri yi wogye firii hɔ no so. Wɔ afe 1865 mu, berɛ a wodii Amerika Aman Nkabom no so nkonim wɔ Amerika Ɔmanko no mu akyi no, Ɔsahene William Tecumseh Sherman de Special Field Orders, No. 15 mae sɛ "wɔmma awerɛhyemu sɛ adeyɛ no bɛyɛ pɛ wɔ beaɛ a wɔyɛ adwuma no"[29] na wɔadi ɔhaw ahodoɔ a nkoa pii a wɔade wɔn ho no de bae no ho dwuma, berɛ tiaa mu afifideɛ a ɛma abusua biara a wɔade wɔn ho no asase a wobetumi ayɛ adwuma wɔ po so nsupoɔ so ne nea atwa ho ahyia no acre aduanan Charleston, South Carolina esiane abibifoɔ a wɔde wɔn ayɛ nkoa nkutoo a wɔde bedi dwuma nti. Na asraafoɔ no nso wɔ mfurumu dodoɔ bi a ɛho nhia a wɔde ma nkoa a wɔade wɔn ho. Wɔde nkoa a wɔade wɔn ho bɛyɛ 40,000 kɔtraa asase a ne kɛse yɛ hɛkta 400,000 (kilomita 1,600) so wɔ Georgia ne South Carolina. Nanso berɛ a wokum Lincoln akyi no, Ɔmampanyin Andrew Johnson danee nhyehyɛeɛ no. Wɔsan de asase no maa wɔn a na wɔwɔ hɔ kan no, na wɔhyɛɛ abibifoɔ ma wofirii hɔ. Wɔ afe 1867 mu no, Thaddeus Stevens boaa mmara bi a wɔde bɛsan akyekyɛ asase ama Amerikafoɔ a wɔyɛ abibifoɔ, nanso ankɔ so.

Rekɔnstrakhyen no baa awieɛ no wɔ afe 1877 mu a wɔanni asɛm a ɛfa akatua ho no ho dwuma. Ɛno akyi no, mpaapaemu ne nhyɛsoɔ kuo bi a wɔhyɛɛ da sɔree wɔ Kesee Fam aman mu. Wɔhyehyɛɛ Jim Crow mmara wɔ Kesee Fam Apuei aman bi mu de hyɛɛ pɛyɛ a enni hɔ deda a nkoasom de aba no mu den. Afei nso, aborɔfo ahyehyɛdeɛ ahoroɔ a wɔyɛ katee te sɛ Ku Klux Klan de wɔn ho hyɛɛ amumɔyɛsɛm ɔsatu kɛse bi mu wɔ Kesee Fam Apuei nyinaa sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a wɔbɛma Amerikafoɔ a wɔyɛ abibifoɔ akɔ so atra wɔn asetra mu beaɛ a wɔahyɛ no. Mfe du du pii no, wobuu wei a wosusuo sɛ pɛyɛ a enni hɔ ne ntɛnkyea ho atɛn wɔ asɛnnibea gyinaesi ahodoɔ mu na wogye ho akyinnye wɔ bagyam kasa ahodoɔ mu.

Wɔ asɛm bi a ɛyɛ nwanwa mu no, kanee akoa bi a wɔfrɛ no Henrietta Wood de asɛm no kɔdan asɛnnibea yiye sɛ wɔmma no akatua bere a wɔkyeree no fii Ohio mantam a ahofadi wom mu na wɔtɔn no kɔɔ nkoasom mu wɔ Mississippi no. Amerika Ɔmanko no akyi no, wɔmaa no ahofadi na ɔsan kɔɔ Cincinnati, faako a odii nkonim wɔ n’asɛm no mu wɔ aban asennibea wɔ afe 1878 mu, na onyaa $2,500 (~$81,457 wɔ afe 2024 mu) wɔ nneɛma a wɔsɛee no mu. Ɛwom sɛ na atemmuo no yɛ ɔman no atesɛm krataa deɛ, nanso ankanyan su biara sɛ wɔbɛfa nsɛm foforɔ a ɛte saa ara.[30]

Rekɔnstrakhyen Akyi Berɛ mu

Wɔ afe 1896 mu no, wɔhyehyɛɛ National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty and Pension Association (MRB&PA) a atirimpɔ no ne sɛ wobenya pɛnhyen sika ama kan nkoa afiri Ɔmanpanin aban hɔ sɛ akatua ne akatua wɔ wɔn adwuma ne amanehunu a wontuaeɛ no ho. Wɔde ahyehyɛdeɛ no sii hɔ wɔ afe 1898 mu wɔ Nashville, Tennessee, na kanee nkoa Callie House ne Isaiah H. Dickerson na wɔhyehyɛɛ no. Sɛnea abakɔsɛm akyerɛfoɔ binom kyerɛ no, na ahyehyɛdeɛ no ne “kuo a edi kan a wɔde tua nnipa pii ka a Amerikafoɔ a wɔyɛ abibifoɔ dii anim.”[31] Wɔde atorɔ sobɔ ne nsɛmmɔnedi ho asɛm tiaa ahyehyɛdeɛ no ne n’akannifoɔ kɔsii sɛ wɔtoo ne mpɔtam hɔ baa dwumadibea a etwa to no mu wɔ afe 1930 mfe no mu.

Wɔ afe 1915 mu, wɔ Callie House akanni ase no, fekuo no de kuw asɛm, Johnson v. McAdoo, kɔɔ ɔman asennibea tiaa U.S. Sikakorabea Dwumadibea no de gyee dɔla ɔpepem 68. Ná dɔla ɔpepem 68 yɛ kotoku toɔ dodoɔ a wogyee wɔ afe 1862 ne 1868 ntam hɔ, na wɔkyerɛe sɛ na ɛsɛ sɛ wɔde tuaa wɔn a wɔde asɛm no kɔdan wɔn no efirisɛ na wɔne wɔn nananom na wɔayɛ saa kotoku yi esiane wɔn nkoasom a wɔmpɛ nti. Wei ne Abibifoɔ akatua ho asɛm a edi kan a wɔkyerɛ ho asɛm wɔ U.S. wɔ aban mpanyimfo gyinabea. U.S. Asɛnnibea a Ɛhwɛ Asɛm a Wɔde Kɔdan Asɛnnibea a ɛwɔ Columbia Mantam mu no gyinaa aban ahobammɔ so poɔ asɛm no sɛnea U.S. Asɛnnibea Kunini no yɛe no, na ɛde Asɛnnibea a Ɛhwɛ Asɛm a Wɔde Kɔdan Asɛnnibea no gyinaesi no akyi.[32]

2020

Asɛmti no bɛyɛɛ asɛmti titire wɔ afe 2020 Demokratik Party ɔmanpanin akansie no mu berɛ[33] a nsɛm a ɛha adwene a ɛfa mmirikatuo ho no yɛɛ kɛse esiane nsɛm a esisi mprempren nti.[34] Wɔmaa ɛyɛɛ kɛse bio esiane sɛ na Afrikafoɔ-Amerikafoɔ rewuwu ntɛm na ɛnsɛ esiane COVID-19 ɔyaredɔm no nti. Nhyehyɛeɛ mu nyiyimu a ɛkɔ so ne polisifoɔ atirimuɔdensɛm nso maa abufuo baa ɔman no mu nyinaa, titiriw Breonna Taylor, Afrikani-Amerikani aduruyɛ ho nimdefoɔ a wadi mfe aduonu-nsia (26) a Louisville Metro Polisifoɔ Dwumadibea too tuo kum no wɔ ne fie no; Ahmaud Arbery a wokum no, a wɔtoo no tuo berɛ a na aborɔfo baasa retu mmirika wɔ Georgia no; ne George Floyd, Amerikani Abibifoɔ a wokum no berɛ a Minneapolis polisifoɔ kyeree no berɛ a wɔkyerɛ sɛ ɔpenee $20 sika a ɛnyɛ nokware so akyi, a ɛmaa George Floyd ɔsɔretia a ɛkɔɔ so wɔ ɔman no mu nyinaa bae no kum no.[35]

Wɔn a wɔpɛ sɛ wɔpaw wɔn a wɔfoaa adwene no so no bi ne:

  • Andrew Yang kaa sɛ ɔboa H.R. 40, Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act, a Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee boae,[36] berɛ a na ɔrekasa wɔ Karen Hunter ɔyɛkyerɛ no so no.[37]
  • Marianne Williamson kaa nhyehyɛe bi a wɔayɛ de atua ka ho asɛm kɔɔ akyiri wɔ nsɛm a wobisabisaa Ebony Magazine mu.[38]
  • Sɛnea NPR kyerɛ no, Mmarahyɛ Badwa no mufoɔ Elizabeth Warren ne Cory Booker nyinaa akyerɛ sɛ wɔboa kakra ma wɔatua wɔn ka.[39]
  • Tulsi Gabbard yɛ ɔboafoɔ a ɔboa H.R. 40, mmara baako pɛ a ɛwɔ Mmarahyɛ Badwa no mu a ɛsua na ɛyɛɛ akatua ho nsusuiɛ[40] ɛna Bernie Sanders yɛ obi a ɔka ho ma Mmarahyɛ Badwa no nkyerɛaseɛ a ɛfa mmara no ho.[41]

Kamala Harris de too dwa wɔ Oforisuo bosome, afe 2019 mu sɛ ɔboa akatua.[42]

Sɛnea U.S. News & World Report kyerɛ no, Beto O’Rourke “abue n’ani sɛ obesusu nneɛma bi a wɔde betua ho ka.”[43][44][45]

Tom Steyer wɔ afe 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate a ɛkɔɔ so wɔ South Carolina no daa ne mmoa adi sɛ wɔmfa ntua wɔn ka.[46]

Nsusuwii ahodoɔ a ɛfa akatua ho

[sesa]

United States aban no

Nsusuwii ahodoɔ bi ahwehwɛ sɛ wotua sika tẽẽ firi U.S. aban hɔ. Wɔde akontaabuo ahodoɔ ama sɛ ɛsɛ sɛ wotua sika a ɛte saa a. Harper's Magazine buu akontaa sɛ akatua a ɛsɛ sɛ wotua nyinaa bɛyɛ "dɔla ɔpepepepem 97, a egyina nnɔnhwere 222,505,049 a wɔde yɛɛ adwuma a wɔhyɛɛ ma wɔyɛe wɔ afe 1619 ne afe 1865 ntam so, ɛmfa ho sɛ na United States nyɛ ɔman a wɔgye tom a ɛde ne ho kosii sɛ Ɔman Anidan Ko no akyi wɔ afe 1787 mu, na ɛkɔɔ soro wɔ mfaso 6% kɔsi afe 1993".[47] Sɛ ɛsɛ sɛ wotua sika yi nyinaa anaa ne fa bi ma nkoa asefoɔ a wɔwɔ United States a, na mprempren U.S. aban no betua saa ka no fa ketewaa bi pɛ, efirisɛ efiri afe 1789 nkutoo na ɛwɔ hɔ.

Sɛnea Brookings Asoɛe kyerɛ no, wɔ afe 1860 mu no, na bɛboro dɔla ɔpepepem 3 (dɔla ɔpepepem 83 wɔ afe 2023 mu) ne boɔ a wɔde maa Amerikafoɔ Abibifoɔ a wɔde wɔn ayɛ nkoa no honam fam nipadua sɛ wɔmfa nni dwuma sɛ adwumayɛfoɔ a wɔde wɔn ho ne nneɛma a wɔyɛ.[48] Wei yɛ sika pii sene nea wɔde hyɛɛ adwumayɛbea ne keteke akwan mu a wɔaka abom. Wɔ afe 1861 mu no, boɔ a wɔde too kotokuo a Abibifoɔ a wɔde wɔn ayɛ nkoa yɛeɛ no yɛ dɔla ɔpepem 250 (dɔla ɔpepepem 6.66 wɔ afe 2023 mu). Wɔ Abibifoɔ ɔpepem 12.5 a wɔde nkɔnsɔnkɔnsɔn guu po so hyɛn mu firii Afrika Atɔe fam no asefoɔ fam no, “Amerika wɔ awoɔ mu dɛmdie bi wɔ awoɔ mu berɛ a ɛfa abusuakuo ho asɛmmisa ho no,” sɛnea U.S. ananmusifoɔ Hakeem Jeffries kaaɛ nnansa yi no. Sɛ Amerika bɛpata saa sintɔ yi a, akatua a wɔde ma Amerikafoɔ Abibifoɔ no yɛ ayaresa ne mpata nhyehyɛe no fa.

Ɔsɔfo M.J. Divine a wonim no yie sɛ Agya Divine no yɛ akannifoɔ a wodii kan gyee akyinnye pefee sɛ "akatua a wɔde ma akyi" no mu baako, na wɔfaa Amanaman Ntam Asomdwoe Asɛmpatrɛɛ nwoma ahodoɔ so trɛɛ nkrasɛm no mu. Wɔ Kitawonsa bosome da a ɛtɔ so 28, afe 1951 mu no, Paapa Divine de "asomdwoe stamp" bi a wɔatwerɛɛ so sɛ: "Asomdwoe! Aman ne nnipa a wɔasi wɔn a wonni hokwan no ano na wɔhyɛ wɔn so nyinaa, ɛbɛyɛ wɔn ahyɛdeɛ sɛ wotua Afrika nkoa ne wɔn asefoɔ wɔ nkoasom a wɔantua ho ka nyinaa ne akatua a ɛnteɛ nyinaa ho, a ɛnam so ama wɔagye akatua wɔ ɔkwan a ɛnteɛ so wɔ nea atwam no ho." Nkoasom tebea ne mprempren nkoasom tebea no yɛ nea ɛsɛ sɛ wɔyɛ wɔ asɛmti afoforɔ a wonni hokwan biara nyinaa ho banbɔ mu na ɛsɛ sɛ wotua wɔn ka wɔ akyiri berɛ nyinaa".[49]

Wɔ Ɔman Akatua Nhyiamu a edi kan a wɔyɛe wɔ Chicago wɔ afe 2001 mu no, na nyansahyɛ bi a Howshua Amariel, Chicago asetena mu ɔdeyɛfoɔ bi de mae no bɛhwehwɛ sɛ aban a ɛwɔ ɔman no mu no tua nkoa asefoɔ a wɔada wɔn ho adi no ka. Bio nso, Amariel kaa sɛ "Wɔ saa abibifoɔ a wɔpɛ sɛ wɔtena Amerika no fam no, ɛsɛ sɛ wonya akatua a ɛyɛ nwomasua a wontua hwee, ayaresa a wontua hwee, mmara kwan so mmoa a wontua hwee ne sikasɛm mu mmoa a wontua hwee mfie aduonum a wontua toɔ biara," ne "Wɔn a wɔpɛ sɛ wofiri Amerika no fam no, abibifoɔ biara bɛnya dɔla ɔpepem baako anaa nea ɛboro saa, a sika kɔkɔɔ tare akyire, de atua wɔn ka. Wɔ nhyiamu no ase no, Amariel nyansahyɛ no nyaa pene firii nnipa 100 anaa nea ɛte saa a wɔde wɔn ho hyɛɛ mu no hɔ.[50] Ne nyinaa mu no, asɛmmisa a ɛne sɛ hwan na obɛgye sika a ɛte saa, hwan na ɛsɛ sɛ otua ne sika dodoɔ a wɔde tua no da so ara yɛ nea akyinnyegyeɛ kɛse wom,[51][52] efirisɛ United States Kankɔ no nhwɛ abusua a efiri nkoa anaa nkoa wuranom mu na ɛde ne ho to mmusuakuo a wɔn ankasa bɔ amanneɛ so.

Wɔ Kitawonsa bosome da a ɛtɔ so 30, afe 2008 mu no, United States Aban Mmarahyɛ Badwa no de gyinaesie bi too kyɛwpa wɔ Amerika nkoasom ne nyiyimu ho mmara a edii akyiri bae no ho.[53]

Aman nkron apa kyɛw wɔ aban kwan so wɔ wɔn ho a wɔde hyɛɛ Afrikafoɔ a wɔde wɔn yɛ nkoa mu no ho. Saa aman no ne:

  • Alabama – Oforisuo bosome da ɛtɔ so 25, afe 2007 mu[54]
  • Connecticut
  • Delaware – Ɔpɛpɔn bosome da ɛtɔ so 11, afe 2016 mu[55]
  • Florida – afe 2008 mu[54]
  • Maryland – afe 2007 mu[54]
  • New Jersey – afe 2008 mu[54]
  • North Carolina – afe 2007 mu[56]
  • Tennessee
  • Virginia – afe 2007 mu[54]

Ankorankorɛ ahyehyɛdeɛ ahodoɔ

Ná ankorankorɛ ahyehyɛdeɛ ne nnwumakuo nso de wɔn ho hyɛ nkoasom mu. Wɔ Ɔbɛnim bosome da a ɛtɔ so 8, wɔ afe 2000 mu no, Reuters News Service bɔɔ amanneɛ sɛ Deadria Farmer-Paellmann a wawie mmaranimfoɔ sukuu no firii ɔsatu bi a ɔbea baako yɛe ase de abakɔsɛm mu ahwehwɛdeɛ a ɛne sɛ wɔbɛsan de sika a wɔde bɛsan ama ne kyɛwpa afiri nnɛyi nnwumakuo a wodii dwuma tẽẽ wɔ Afrikafoɔ a wɔde wɔn yɛɛ nkoa mu no ase. Aetna Inc. na odii kan de n’ani sii so esiane su a wɔyɛe sɛ wɔretwerɛ nkwa ho insurance nkrataa a ɛfa Afrikafoɔ a wɔde wɔn ayɛ nkoa asetena ho a nkoa wuranom na wonya so mfaso nti. Wɔ Farmer-Paellmann ahwehwɛdeɛ no ho mmuaeɛma mu no, Aetna Inc. de kyɛwpa krataa mae wɔ badwam, na wɔwoo "adwumakuo a wɔsan de nneɛma ma kuo" no.[57]

Eduruu afe 2002 mu no, wɔde nsɛm nkron kɔdan mmaranimfoɔ wɔ ɔman no mu nyinaa a Farmer-Paellmann ne Restitution Study Group—New York adwumakuo bi a wɔnyɛ adwuma a wɔde hwehwɛ mfasoɔ — na wɔyɛɛ ho nhyehyɛe. Ná nnipa 20 a wɔde asɛm no kɔdan asɛnnibea no ka asɛm no ho, na wɔhwehwɛɛ sɛ nnwumakuo 20 a wofiri sikakorabea, insurance, ntoma, keteke, ne tawa adwumayɛbea ahodoɔ no san ma wɔn. Wɔboaboaa nsɛm no ano wɔ 28 U.S.C. 1407[58] mu de kɔɔ amansini pii mu asɛm a wɔde kɔdan United States Ɔmantam Asɛnnibea a ɛhwɛ Illinois Atifi Fam Mantam no so. Ɔmantam asɛnnibea no de adwemmɔne buu mmara mu nsɛm no animtiaa, na wɔn a wɔde asɛm no kɔdan United States Asɛnnibea a Ɛhwɛ Asɛm a Wɔde Kɔdan Asɛnnibea a Ɛto so nson no.

Wɔ Ɔpɛnimaa bosome da a ɛtɔ so 13, wɔ afe 2006 mu no, saa asɛnnibea no, wɔ adwene bi a Ɔtemmufoɔ Richard Posner twerɛɛ mu no, sesaa ɔmantam asɛnnibea no atemmuo no ma ɛyɛɛ sɛ wɔayi obi afiri adwumam a enni adwemmɔne, sii ɔmantam asɛnnibea no atemmu dodoɔ no ara so dua, na ɛdanee ɔmantam asɛnnibea no atemmuo no fa a ɛpoɔ asɛm no mu asɛm no mufoɔ no ahobammɔ ho nsɛm a wɔkae no, na wɔde asɛm no san kɔdan wɔn bio a ɛne n’adwene hyia.[59] Enti, wɔn a wɔde asɛm no kɔdan wɔn no betumi de asɛm no aba bio, nanso ɛsɛ sɛ wodi kan yi akwansideɛ akɛseɛ a ɛwɔ asɛnnibea ne nea ɛfa ho no firi hɔ:

Sɛ wɔn a wɔde wɔn ho too wɔn so no mu baako anaa nea ɛboro saa buu ɔman mmara bi so denam nkoa a wɔde wɔn kɔe wɔ afe 1850 mu no so, na wɔn a wɔde asɛm no kɔdan wɔn no tumi si gyinabea a wɔde bɛkɔ asɛnnibea so dua, akyerɛ sɛ wɔabu mmara so ɛmfa ho sɛ ɛyɛ tete adeɛ, kyerɛ sɛ na wɔahyɛ da ayɛ mmara no sɛ ɛnyɛ ano aduro (tẽẽ anaasɛ denam nea wogyina so de mmara kwan so adeyɛ a ɛfa atirisopam, adwensakra, anaa nea wɔsan de ma) bɛma nnipa a wɔde wɔn ayɛ nkoa wɔ mmara kwan so anaa wɔn asefoɔ so, wɔbɛkyerɛ wɔn nananom, akyerɛ nneɛma a wɔsɛee no dodoɔ, na wɔdaadaa asɛnnibea no ma wotua mmara a ɛkyerɛ sɛ wɔagye wɔn berɛ no ho ka a, anka akwansideɛ foforɔ biara rentena hɔ mma ahotɔ a wɔde ma no.[60]

Wɔ Ahenime bosome mu, afe 2000 mu no, California yɛɛ Slavery Era Disclosure Law a ɛhwehwɛ sɛ insurance nnwumakuo a wɔyɛ adwuma wɔ hɔ no bɔ wɔn dwumadie wɔ nkoasom mu ho amanneɛ. Mmara a ɛfa nsɛm a wɔda no adi ho a Mmarahyɛ Badwa no muni Tom Hayden de bae no ne mmara a ɛte saa ara a wɔahyɛ wɔ amantam 12 a atwa United States ho ahyia no nhwɛsoɔ.

NAACP ahyɛ sɛ wɔnyɛ mmara a ɛte saa pii wɔ mpɔtam hɔ ne nnwumakuo mu. Ɛfa Dennis C. Hayes, NAACP kwankyerɛfoɔ panin asɛm ka sɛ, "Korakora, yɛbɛdi akatua akyi afiri nnwumakuo a wɔwɔ abakɔsɛm mu abusuabɔ a ɛda nkoasom ntam no hɔ na yɛama afa ahodoɔ nyinaa aba pono no so."[61] Brown Sukuupɔn a na abusua a wɔde wɔn din too so no de wɔn ho hyɛ nkoatɔn mu no nso ayɛ boayikuo bi a wɔbɛhwehwɛ asɛm a ɛfa akatua ho no mu. Wɔ Ɔgyefoɔ bosome afe 2007 mu no, Brown Sukuupɔn de mmuae ahodoɔ[62] a wɔde bɛma wɔn Akwankyerɛ Boayikuo a Ɛhwɛ Nkoayɛ ne Atɛntrenee So no too dwa.[63] Berɛ a wɔ afe 1995 mu no, Southern Baptist Nhyiamu no paa kyɛw wɔ "bɔne" a ɛwɔ mmusua mu nyiyimu ho, a nkoasom ka ho.[64]

Wɔ Ɔpɛnimaa bosome, afe 2005 mu no, akuo a wɔde sika a wɔde tua ho ka a wɔaka abom wɔ Restitution Study Group no boa ase no frɛɛ sɛ wɔmfa wɔn ho nhyɛ mu. Boycott no de wɔn ani si sikakorabea ahodoɔ a wobu wɔn sɛ wɔde wɔn ho hyɛ nkoasom mu no sukuufoɔ boseabɔ nneɛma so—titiriw nea wɔahu wɔ Farmer-Paellmann asɛm no mu no. Sɛ́ boycott no fa no, wɔsrɛ sukuufoɔ sɛ wɔnpaw mfiri sikakorabea afoforɔ mu mfa ntua wɔn sukuufoɔ boseabɔ ho ka.[65]

Akuo a wɔtaa akatua akyi te sɛ National Coalition of Blacks for Reparations in America kamfo kyerɛ sɛ wɔmfa akatua nyɛ mpɔtam hɔfoɔ a wɔbɛsan asiesie wɔn ho na ɛnyɛ sika a wobetua ama asefoɔ ankorankorɛ.[52]

Abibifoɔ Nkwa Ho Hia

Akuo pii a ɛwɔ Black Lives Matter ahyehyɛdeɛ no ase de ahwehwɛdeɛ ahodoɔ a wɔahyehyɛ ato hɔ, a ebinom bi ne: akatua, wɔ nea wɔka sɛ atwam ne ɔhaw a ɛkɔ so ba Amerikafoɔ a wɔyɛ abibifoɔ so, owu asotwe a wɔbɛma aba awieɛ, mmara a wɔde begye nkoasom nkɛntɛnso atomu, adeyɛ a ɛbɛma wɔagye sika afiri polisifoɔ nsam, afie a aborɔfo mmusua wɔ na wɔama abibifoɔ a wontua hwee,[66] ne sika a wɔde bɛto nwomasua nhyehyɛe ahodoɔ mu, adwenemyare nnwuma, ne nnwuma ho nhyehyɛe ahodoɔ.[67] Wɔahyɛ saa ɔfrɛ a ɛne sɛ wɔmfa ntua ka yi mu den wɔ COVID-19 ɔyaredɔm ne polisifoɔ atirimɔdensɛm a ɛkɔ soro tia Abibifoɔ no mu.[68]

Akyinnyegye a wɔde ma wɔ akatua ho

[sesa]

Ahonyadeɛ a wɔaboaboa ano

Adan mu nyiyimu dii dwuma titiriw wɔ mmusuakuo mu ahonyadeɛ mu nsonsonoeɛ a ɛwɔ hɔ nnɛ no mu. Berɛ a Kesee Fam abibifoɔ Tu kɔɔ Chicago wɔ 1940 mfie no mu akyi no, wɔde redlining dii dwuma de maa kan nkoa ntetee wɔn ho firii aborɔfo ho na wɔasi abibifoɔ mmusua kwan sɛ wɔrennya dan ka.[9] Enti wɔhyɛɛ wɔn ma wɔtɔɔ afie wɔ apam ahodoɔ so firii wɔn a wɔtɔn adan ne afie ho, na na ɛyɛ asisie. Ɛnyɛ sɛ wei maa Amerikafoɔ Abibifoɔ mpempem pii hweree wɔn afie ne wɔn sika nko, na mmom ɛde nea wonim no nnɛ sɛ ghettos nso bae na amma Abibifoɔ anboaboa ahonyadeɛ ano. Ɛnnɛ, sɛ wɔkyekyem pɛpɛɛpɛ a, abusua a wɔyɛ aborɔfo no wɔ ahonyadeɛ bɛyɛ sɛ abusua a wɔyɛ abibifoɔ no mmɔho 10, na aborɔfo a wɔawie kɔlege no wɔ ahonyadeɛ bɛboro Abibifoɔ a wɔawie kɔlege no mmɔho nson.

United States ahonyadeɛ nyaa nkɔanim kɛse denam Afrikafoɔ ne Amerikafoɔ nkoa adwuma a wɔde dii dwuma no so: ebinom ka sɛ ɛno ne ɔbotan a ɛma U.S. sikasɛm ne kapitalisim yɛ adwuma. Nanso, kan nkoa ne wɔn asefoɔ ka nnipa a wodi hia sen biara wɔ Amerika no ho.[69] Sɛnea saa adwene yi kyerɛ no, na sika a wɔde tua ho ka no som bo titiriw sɛ ɔkwan a wɔbɛfa so asiesie nnɛyi sikasɛm a ɛnkari pɛ.

Wɔ afe 2008 mu no, Amerika Nnipa Ho Adesua Fekuo no tintim asɛm bi a ɛkyerɛ sɛ sɛ wɔmaa nkoa a wɔanya ahofadie no kwan ma wonyaa wɔn adwuma mu mfasoɔ na wɔkoraa so a, afei ebia wɔn asefoɔ bedi Amerikafoɔ asetena ne sikasɛm mu ahonyadeɛ no fa kɛse so.[70] Ɛnyɛ sɛ wɔn a wɔde wɔn ho no annya mfasoɔ yi mu kyɛfa nko, na mmom wogyee akatua nketenkete a wotua maa wɔn mu binom wɔ Ɔdansi no mu no firii wɔn nsam.[71] Enti, nwomanimfoɔ ne wɔn a wɔyɛ adwumaden pii frɛ sɛ wɔmfa akatua mma na wɔayi "abusuakuo mu nsonsonoe a ɛwɔ ahonyadeɛ, sika a wonya, nwomasua, akwahosan, asotwe ne afiasenna, amammuonsɛm mu kyɛfa a wonya, ne hokwan ahodoɔ a edi hɔ a wɔde wɔn ho bɛhyɛ Amerika amammuo ne asetena mu asetena mu" afiri hɔ.[4]

Akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe

Wɔ afe 2019 mu no, VICE nsɛmma nhoma tintim asɛm bi a ɛkyerɛe sɛ mmusuakuo akwahosan mu nsonsonoe, firi nkoasom so kɔsi Jim Crow so besi nnɛ, ama Amerikafoɔ Abibifoɔ ahwere sika kɛse wɔ akwahosan ho ka ne akatua a wɔahwere mu, na ɛsɛ sɛ wotua.[72] Ray ne Perry ka wɔ Brookings asɛm bi mu sɛ asetena mu ahobammɔ afiri a enni hɔ ne ahonyadeɛ mu nsonsonoe no da adi titiriw wɔ COVID-19 ɔyaredɔm no mu. Wɔkyerɛkyerɛ mu sɛ “nsonsonoe a ɛwɔ akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe a wobenya mu ne pɛyɛ a enni sikasɛm nhyehyɛe ahodoɔ mu no ka bom,” na ɛma pɛyɛ a enni hɔ yi yɛ asetena anaa owu tebea ma Amerikafoɔ abibifoɔ.[73]

Mprempren nyiyimu

Nnipa pii ka sɛ nkoasom ho akatua a wɔde bɛma no yɛ nea ɛyɛ den dodo, nanso nnyinasoɔ a emu yɛ den wɔ hɔ a wogyina so gyina nyiyimu a atwam ne mprempren a abibifoɔ a wɔwɔ Amerika hyia no so.[69][74] Ta-Nehisi Coates kyerɛkyerɛ mu wɔ "The Case for Reparations" asɛm a ɛwɔ The Atlantic mu sɛ "Jim Crow mfie aduɔkron, mfie aduosia a wɔate wɔn ho nanso ɛyɛ pɛ, ne mfie aduasa-num a wɔde yɛɛ adan ho nhyehyɛe a ɛkyerɛ mmusua mu nyiyimu".[9] Saa nhyehyɛe ahodoɔ yi agyapadeɛ ama Amerikafoɔ a wɔyɛ abibifoɔ anya hokwan ahodoɔ a wɔde bɛkyekye ahonyadeɛ, berɛ a nkoasom "maa nkoa wuranom aborɔfo ne wɔn asefoɔ nyaa ahonyadeɛ".[73] Ɛnnɛ, North Lawndale mantam a ɛwɔ Chicago, baabi a na redlining mu yɛ den sen biara no ne mpɔtam a wodi hia sen biara wɔ kuro no mu, a adwuma a wonnya nyɛ dodoɔ yɛ 18.6% na ɛhɔfoɔ 42% te ohia ano hyɛtoɔ ase.[9]

Nneyɛe a wɔyɛe wɔ afe 1940 kɔsi 1970 mu no da so ara gyegye nnɛ, efirisɛ sɛ wɔkyekyem pɛpɛɛpɛ a, Aborɔfo abusua no wɔ ahonyadeɛ bɛyɛ sɛ Abibifoɔ abusua no mmɔho du.[69][73][75] Sɛnea Bittker ka wɔ ne nwoma The Case for Black Reparations mu no, "berɛ a nkoasom reyera kɔɔ akyi no, caste nhyehyɛe a ɛka aborɔfo tumidie ho dii n'akyi".[76] Nnipa pii ka sɛ berɛ a ebia akatua bɛyɛ anammɔn a edi kan a wɔbɛfa so ayɛ nsakrae wɔ ɔhaw ahodoɔ a nkoasom de ba no mu no, wɔrensiesie nhyehyɛe mu mmusua mu nyiyimu a ɛwɔ ahyehyɛdeɛ ahodoɔ pii mu no ntɛm saa. Malcolm X kaa sɛ: "Sɛ wode sekan hyɛ m'akyi nsateakwaa nkron na wotwe no nsateakwaa asia a, nkɔsoɔ biara nni hɔ. Sɛ wotwe no nyinaa firi mu a ɛnyɛ nkɔsoɔ. Nkɔsoɔ yɛ ekuro a ɔhweɛ no de bae no a wobɛsa."[77]

Nneɛma a atwam

Wɔn a wɔkamfo kyerɛ no de nhwɛsoɔ afoforɔ a ɛfa akatua ho adi dwuma de aka sɛ ɛsɛ sɛ wotua wɔn a wɔayɛ wɔn nkoa wɔ ahyehyɛdeɛ ahodoɔ mu no ka saa ara.[78]

Wɔ nsɛm pii mu no, aban a ɛwɔ ɔman no mu no apa akuo nketewa kyɛw wɔ ɔkwan a ɛfata so anaasɛ wɔatua wɔn ka wɔ nneyɛe a atwam ho:

  • Wɔ Ɔmanfo Ahofadie Mmara a wɔyɛe wɔ afe 1988 mu a Ɔmampanin Ronald Reagan de ne nsa hyɛɛ aseɛ sɛ mmara no ase no, U.S. aban no paa kyɛw wɔ Japanfoɔ Amerikafoɔ a wɔde wɔn guu afiase wɔ Wiase Ko II mu no ho na wɔde $20,000 maa obiara a onyaa ne ti didii mu no ka, de tuaa agyapadeɛ ne ahofadie a wɔhweree wɔ saa berɛ no mu no ka. Nanso wɔamfa akatua biara amma ankorankoroɛ a ɛkaa wɔn no asefoɔ.
  • Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act no de asase, aban sika, ne sika a wonya firi ngo mu no fa bi maa Alaskafoɔ a wɔyɛ kurom hɔfoɔ.
  • Apology Resolution a wɔyɛe wɔ afe 1993 mu no paa kyɛw wɔ Hawaii Ahemman a wotuu gui no ho, nanso wɔamfa akatua biara amma.

U.S. aman nnisoɔ ahodoɔ ayɛ akatua wɔ tebea pɔtee bi mu:

  • Virginia hyehyɛɛ sikakorabea bi a wɔde tua wɔn a wɔayɛ wɔn awo a wɔmpɛ sɛ wɔyɛ no ka wɔ afe 2015 mu.[79]

Aman afoforɔ nso apaw sɛ wobetua anwiinwii a atwam no ho ka, te sɛ:

  • Okunkɛse no ho akatua, a Israel ne West Germany ntam Akatua ho Apam ne nhyehyɛe ahodoɔ a wɔyɛe wɔ Yudafoɔ Nneɛma a Wɔka Tia Germany Ho Nhyiamu no ase ka ho.

Akyinnyegye ahodoɔ a ɛkasa tia akatua a wɔde ma

[sesa]

Mmara a ɛfa berɛ a wɔde yɛ adwuma ho

Ɔman ne aban mmara dodoɔ no ara a afa ahodoɔ betumi de akɔ asɛnnibea sɛ wɔmfa nneɛma a wɔsɛee no ho ka no wɔ mmara a ɛkyerɛ berɛ a etwa to a wɔde bɛkɔ akɔdan aban; weinom nyinaa atwam firi berɛ tenten, na ɛmma asɛnnibea ahodoɔ mma ahotɔ wɔ mmara a ɛwɔ hɔ deda no ase. Wɔde wei adi dwuma yie wɔ nsɛm pii mu, a nea ɛka ho ne In re: African American Slave Descendants, a ɛpoɔ asɛm a ɛkorɔn a wɔde kɔdan nnwumakuo dodoɔ bi a wɔne nkoasom wɔ abusuabɔ no.[80]

Mfiridwuma mu nsɛnnennen

Mfiridwuma fa a ɛwɔ akatua ho no yɛ nea ɛyɛ den yie, na ebetumi ayɛ nea enti a wonnya mfaa nni dwuma. Ebinom gye akyinnye tia adwene a ɛne sɛ wɔde sika bɛto ahodwiriwdeɛ a Amerikafoɔ Abibifoɔ ahyia no so, na wɔto din "transactionalism".[74] Ɔkwan foforɔ so no, ebinom poɔ asɛm a ɛfa akatua ho no koraa esiane nneɛma a ɛha adwene a mfasoɔ wɔ so nti, te sɛ hwan na obenya sika a wobetua yi, dɛn nti na ɛsɛ sɛ awo ntoatoasoɔ a ɛwɔ hɔ mprempren no tua mfomsoɔ ahodoɔ a ɛnyɛ wɔn asodie, ne sika dodoɔ a ɛsɛ sɛ wotua.

Akontaabuo a ɛfa sika a nkoa adwuma a wowia ne nyiyimu a ɛba akyiri yi ho no gu ahodoɔ “efiri dɔla ɔpepem 3.2 a ɛba fam koraa kosi dɔla ɔpepepem 4.7,” na ɛkɔ dɔla ɔpepepepem 12.[69] Wei nso ma asɛmmisa a ɛne sɛ hwan na ɛyɛ n’asɛyɛdeɛ sɛ otua ho ka no sɔre. Mpɛn pii no, wɔpene nnipa baasa so: aban a ɛwɔ ɔman no mu ne ɔman no mu, a wɔboaa nkoasom nhyehyɛe no na wɔbɔɔ ho ban; ankorankorɛ nnwumakuo a wonyaa so mfasoɔ; ne “mmusua a wɔyɛ adefoɔ a wɔde wɔn ahonyadeɛ no fa pa bi ka nkoasom”.[81]

Ebinom ka sɛ ahonyadeɛ mu nsonsonoeɛ a wɔbɛto mu no hwehwɛ sɛ wotua nkoa asefo ka “ankorankorɛ sika a ɛbɛma wɔato Abibifoɔ ne aborɔfo abusuakuo ahonyadeɛ mu mpaapaemu no mu.”[76] Nyansahyɛ foforɔ ne sɛ akatua "bɛba wɔ ahonyadeɛ hokwan ahodoɔ a edi mmusuakuo mu nsonsonoeɛ a ɛwɔ nwomasua, adan, ne adwumayɛ mu wurayɛ mu ho dwuma".[73] Sɛ nhwɛsoɔ no, wɔ Asheville kuropɔn mu, North Carolina no, wɔde akatua a wɔde tua no adi dwuma wɔ ɔkwan a ɛne "sika a wɔde bɛto mmeaeɛ a Abibifoɔ a wɔte hɔ no hyia nsonsonoeɛ".[81] Nanso, nsɛnnennen a atwa wei ho ahyia no yɛ kɛse, na afoforɔ ka sɛ sika no a wɔde bɛto mpɔtam hɔ no nyɛ nea etu mpɔn, esiane nnipa a wotu kɔtra baabi foforɔ ne gentrification nti.[4]

Wɔ ne nwoma no mu no, Bittker de ɔhaw ahodoɔ a mfasoɔ wɔ so ne mmarahyɛ badwa mu a ɛbɛyɛ sɛ ɛbɛsɔre de abɔ mmɔden sɛ ɔbɛyɛ nhyehyɛe bi a wɔde betua Abibifoɔ ka no bi.[76] So ɛbɛyɛ sika koro a wobetua ama obiara? So na ɛsɛ sɛ wɔkyerɛ sɛ wɔyɛ nananom kyerɛ Afrikani akoa bi, anaasɛ ɛbɛyɛ abibifoɔ biara a wɔde ne ho hyɛ mmusua mu nyiyimu ase? Nsɛmmisa yi ho mmuaeɛ ankasa biara nni hɔ, efirisɛ wei yɛ asɛm a ebi mmaa da. Nsɛm afoforɔ a ɛfa akatua ho, te sɛ nea ɛfa Yudafoɔ nkurɔfoɔ a wonyaa wɔn ti didii mu wɔ Okunkɛse no mu anaa Amerikafoɔ Ankasa a wɔwɔ United States no ho no yɛ soronko koraa wɔ ɔkwan a ɛyɛ mmerɛ kɛse sɛ wobehu kuo a ɛsɛ sɛ wonya bi no mu, na wotuaa akatua no ntɛmntɛm sen nea ɛfa nkoasom ho akatua ho.

Akyinnyegye ne adwene afoforɔ

Steven Greenhut, atɔe fam mantam kwankyerɛfo ma R Street Asoɛe no ahyɛ nyansa sɛ sika a wɔde tua ho ka no bɛma mmusua mu nyiyimu asɛe kɛse.[82]

Republican mmarahyɛ badwani Mitch McConnell a ofiri Kentucky, a ɔyɛ nkoa wuranom aseni,[83] berɛ a ogye tom sɛ nkoasom yɛ “mfitiaseɛ bɔne” a United States yɛe no, ɔsɔre tia sɛ wɔde akatua bɛma efiriɛ ogye di sɛ “yɛn mu biara nni hɔ a ɔte ase mprempren no na ɔde asodie no to no so.”[84]

Nwoma baako a ɛkasa tia akatua ne David Horowitz, Uncivil Wars: The Controversy Over Reparations for Slavery (2002). Nnwuma afoforɔ a ɛka ɔhaw ahodoɔ a ɛfa akatua ho asɛm no bi ne John Torpey nwoma Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics (2006), Alfred Brophy nwoma Reparations Pro and Con (2006), ne Nahshon Perez nwoma Freedom from Past Injustices (Edinburgh University Press, 2012).

Akatua a wɔde ma wɔ U.S. no nnyaa ɔmanfoɔ mmoa a ɛtrɛw da.[74] Mpɛn pii no wɔ saa nkɔmmɔbɔ ahodoɔ yi mu no, White reaction ne sɛ wɔbɛka sɛ wei yɛ "reverse racism" a ɛnteɛ, anaasɛ sɛ wɔhwehwɛ sɛ wotua wɔn ka no yɛ "Abibifoɔ po a wɔpoo sɛ wɔbɛkɔ akyiri asen nkoasom ho nkae" no ho nhwɛsoɔ.[74] Afe 2020 nhwehwɛmu bi a ɛfiri The Washington Post kyerɛe sɛ "Amerikafoɔ 63% nsusu sɛ ɛsɛ sɛ U.S. tua nkoa asefoɔ akatua".[81] Nea ɛda nso ne sɛ, Amerikafoɔ Abibifoɔ 82% gyina sika a wɔde tua ho ka akyi, berɛ a Amerikafoɔ Aborɔfoɔ 75% ntumi nyɛ saa. Akyinnyegye ahodoɔ bi nso si nsɛnnennen a ɛwɔ akatua akyi so dua, te sɛ "ɛnyɛ Amerikafoɔ Abibifoɔ nyinaa na wɔyɛ nkoa asefoɔ" anaasɛ sɛ nnipa a wɔte ase nnɛ no nni nkoasom mu ɔhaw ahodoɔ no ho asodie. Afoforɔ da so ara ka sɛ akatua rentumi nyɛ hwee wɔ mmusua mu nyiyimu anim, na nsakrae a wɔbɛyɛ wɔ nhyehyɛe ne nhyehyɛe mu no bɛyɛ nea etu mpɔn kɛseɛ. Wɔ Amerika mmusuakuo mu basabasayɛ a ɛkɔɔ so firi afe 2020 besi nnɛ no mu no, wɔdaa saa nhyɛsoɔ ahodoɔ yi adi titiriw.[original research?]

Akatua ne COVID-19

[sesa]

Ɔfrɛ a ɛne sɛ wɔmfa ntua ka no ayɛ kɛse esiane coronavirus ɔyaredɔm nti, na ɛda adi sɛ wobeyi nnipa a wɔn kɔla gu ahodoɔ afiri adwumam wɔ ɔkwan a ɛnsɛ so, wɔbɛpere wɔn ho wɔ sikasɛm mu, na wɔawuwu wɔ mmoawa no ho.[75] Sɛ nhwɛsoɔ no, nnwuma a abibifoɔ na wɔwɔ no mu 40% ato mu daa firi March ɛnam ɔyaredɔm no nti, sɛ wɔde toto nnwuma a aborɔfo na wɔwɔ mu 17% wɔ saa berɛ korɔ no ara mu.[85] Wei fa nokwasɛm a ɛyɛ sɛ aborɔfo mmusua wɔ ahonyadeɛ bɛyɛ abibifoɔ mmusua de mmɔho du no ho.[69] Wei siw nnwuma a abibifo na wɔwɔ no kwan sɛ wobenya bosea ne bosea, na wonni ahobammɔ afiri wɔ ɔhaw berɛ mu sɛnea nnwuma pii a aborɔfo na wɔwɔ yɛ no.

Bio nso, Amerikafoɔ a wɔyɛ abibifoɔ kɔ so nya yareɛ no na wɔwuwu wɔ COVID-19 mu wɔ dodoɔ a ɛboro wɔn kyɛfa wɔ nnipa dodoɔ mu mmɔho 1.5.[86] Wɔ August 2020 mu no, CDC de nsɛm a ɛkyerɛ sɛ Abibifoɔ, Latinofoɔ, ne Amerika Indiafoɔ rehyia ayaresabea a wɔde wɔn kɔ ayaresabea a ɛboro aborɔfoɔ a wɔnyɛ Hispanicfoɔ so mpɛn 4.5 kɔsi 5.5, na Amerikafoɔ a wɔyɛ abibifoɔ rewuwu wɔ aborɔfoɔ dodoɔ mmɔho 2.4.[86]

Mmara ne nneyɛe afoforo

[sesa]

Federal aban

Wɔ Kitawonsa 30, 2008 no, United States Aban Mmarahyɛ Badwa no too gyinaesi bi a ɛpaa kyɛw wɔ Amerika nkoasom ne nyiyim mmara a edii akyi bae no ho.[53] Mmarahyɛ Badwa no paa kyɛw wɔ afe 2009 mu.[87][88]

Aman

Mmarahyɛ Badwa

  • California – Wɔgyee mmara a ɛhwehwɛ sɛ insurance nnwumakuo hwɛ sɛ ebia wɔwɔ twerɛtohɔ a ɛkɔ akyiri koduru berɛ a nkoasom wɔ ɔman yi mu, na sɛ ɛte saa a, wɔde insurance nhyehyɛeɛ a nkoa wuranom kura wɔ nkoa ho no ho nsɛm bɛma ɔman no insurance dwumadibea.[89] Wɔhyehyɛɛ California Reparations Task Force wɔ afe 2020 mu sɛ ɔman adwumakuo a ɛnyɛ mmara kwan so sɛ wɔbɛsua na wɔayɛ asiesie ho nsusuiɛ.
  • Illinois – Wɔfaa mmara a ɛhwehwɛ sɛ insurance nnwumakuw hwɛ sɛ ebia wɔwɔ twerɛtohɔ ahodoɔ a ɛkɔ akyiri koduru berɛ a na nkoasom wɔ ɔman yi mu no, na sɛ ɛte saa a, wɔde insurance nhyehyɛe ahodoɔ a nkoa wuranom kura wɔ nkoa ho no ho nsɛm bɛma ɔman no insurance dwumadibea.[89]
  • Iowa – Wɔgyee mmara a ɛka kyerɛɛ insurance commissioner no sɛ ɔnbisa sɛ insurance nnwumakuo a wɔwɔ twerɛtohɔ a ɛkɔ akyiri kɔ berɛ a nkoasom wɔ ɔman yi mu na, sɛ ɛte saa a, ɔmfa nsɛm a ɛfa insurance nhyehyɛeɛ a nkoa wuranom kura wɔ nkoa ho no mma ɔman no insurance dwumadibea.[89]
  • Maryland – Wɔgyee mmara a ɛhwehwɛ sɛ insurance nnwumakuo hwɛ sɛ ebia wɔwɔ twerɛtohɔ a ɛkɔ akyiri kodu berɛ a nkoasom wɔ ɔman yi mu na, sɛ ɛte saa a, wɔde nsɛm a ɛfa insurance nhyehyɛeɛ a nkoa wuranom kura wɔ nkoa ho no bɛma ɔman no insurance dwumadibea.[89]
  • New York – Wɔ Ɔpɛnimaa bosome, afe 2023 mu no, Gov. Kathy Hochul de ne nsa hyɛɛ mmara bi ase de hyehyɛɛ badwa bi a wɔbɛsua nkoasom agyapadeɛ ho adesua. Ebia badwa no de nyansahyɛ ahodoɔ bɛma wɔ sika a wɔde bɛtua wɔn ka anaasɛ akatua afoforɔ a wɔde bɛma New York Abibifoɔ a wɔte hɔ no ho wɔ mmɔdenmɔ no ase. Ɔman Mmarahyɛ Badwa a Democratfoɔ di so no penee adeyɛ no so wɔ Ayɛwohomumɔ bosome mu.[90]

Akyɛwpa

  • Alabama – Ɔpaa kyɛw sɛ ɔde ne ho hyɛɛ Afrikafoɔ nkoasom mu wɔ April 25, 2007.[54][91][92]
  • Connecticut – Wɔ afe 2009 mu no, ɔpaa kyɛw wɔ ne ho a ɔde hyɛɛ Afrikafoɔ a wɔde wɔn yɛɛ nkoa no mu.[93]
  • Delaware – Ɔpaa kyɛw wɔ ne ho a ɔde hyɛɛ Afrikafoɔ nkoasom mu wɔ Ɔpɛpɔn 11, 2016.[55]
  • Florida – Wɔ afe 2008 mu no, ɔpaa kyɛw sɛ ɔde ne ho hyɛɛ Afrikafoɔ a wɔde wɔn yɛɛ nkoa wɔ Amerika no mu.[54]
  • Maryland – Wɔ afe 2007 mu no, ɔpaa kyɛw wɔ ne ho a ɔde hyɛɛ Afrikafoɔ a wɔde wɔn yɛɛ nkoa wɔ Amerika no mu.[54]
  • New Jersey – Wɔ afe 2007 mu no, ɔpaa kyɛw sɛ ɔde ne ho hyɛɛ Afrikafoɔ a wɔde wɔn yɛɛ nkoa wɔ Amerika no mu.[54]
  • North Carolina – Wɔ afe 2007 mu no, ɔpaa kyɛw sɛ ɔde ne ho hyɛɛ Afrikafoɔ a wɔde wɔn yɛɛ nkoa wɔ Amerika no mu.[56]
  • Tennessee – Wɔ afe 2007 mu no, Tennessee Aban Asoɛe no too aba de boaa gyinaesi bi a ɛkyerɛ sɛ "wɔn yaw" sɛ wɔde wɔn ho hyɛɛ Afrikafo nkoayɛ mu. Na Aban no ayi "pa kyɛw" kasa biara afi gyinaesi no mu pɔtee.[94][95]
  • Virginia – Ɔpaa kyɛw sɛ ɔde ne ho hyɛɛ Afrikafoɔ nkoasom mu wɔ Ɔpɛpɔn 26, 2007.[54]

Amansin ahodoɔ

Buncombe Mantam, North Carolina: Wɔ Ayɛwohomumɔ bosome mu, da ɛtɔ so 16, afe 2020 mu, wɔ abatoɔ a ewiee 7–0 mu no, Buncombe Mantam Komisafoɔ sii gyinaeɛ sɛ wɔbɛyi Apamfoɔ nkaedum dodoɔ bi a Vance Nkaedum[96] a wɔde North Carolina amrado Zeb Vance, nkoa wura bi a ɔde adwumayɛfoɔ a wɔabu wɔn fɔ de sii keteke kwan a ɛkɔ North Carolina Atɔeɛ fam no din ka ho.[97] Mpɔtam hɔfoɔ a wɔde wɔn ho hyɛɛ mu kɛse na ɛma wosii gyinae. Wɔ abatoɔ no anim no, badwa no nsa kaa nkrasɛm 549 a ɛfoa so na 19 nso sɔre tia.[98]

Nkuro akɛseɛ

Chicago, Illinois: "Wɔ afe 2015 mu no, Chicago hyɛɛ mmara a ɛfa akatua ho mmara a ɛfa Amerikafoɔ a wɔyɛ abibifoɔ ɔhaha pii a polisifoɔ yɛɛ wɔn ayayadeɛ firi 1970 mfe no mu kɔsi 1990 mfe no mu. Mmara no hwehwɛ sɛ wotua sika dɔla ɔpepem 5.5, ne mpempem ɔhaha pii foforɔ ma ɔmanfoɔ nkae, ne mmoa ahodoɔ a ɛfa akwahosan, nwomasua ne nkate mu yiedie ho."[99]

Evanston, Illinois: "Kuro no Badwa a ɛwɔ Evanston, Illinois, too aba sɛ wɔbɛkyekyɛ toɔtua a edi kan a ɛyɛ dɔla ɔpepem 10 a wonya firi wii a wɔde gye wɔn ani (a ɛbɛyɛɛ mmara kwan so wɔ ɔman no mu wɔ Ɔpɛpɔn 1, 2020) no mu de atua sika a wɔde tua ho ka nhyehyɛe ahodoɔ a edi nsonsonoe a ɛwɔ ahonyadeɛ ne hokwan a abibifoɔ a wɔte hɔ no mu ho dwuma."[2]

Asheville, North Carolina: Kuro no badwa no penee akatua so wɔ abatoɔ 7–0 so wɔ Kitawonsa 14, 2020. "Sikasɛm ne nhyehyɛe mu nneɛma a ɛho hia no betumi ayɛ nea ɛka ho nanso ɛnyɛ ne nyinaa ne sɛ wɔbɛma nnipa kakraa bi afie a wɔwɔ ne adan afoforɔ a ne boɔ yɛ den a wobenya, adwumayɛfoɔ nketewa a wɔwɔ ne adwumayɛ hokwan ahodoɔ a wɔbɛma akɔ soro, akwan ahodoɔ a wɔbɛfa so ama pɛyɛ ne awoɔ ntoatoasoɔ ahonyadeɛ anyini, a wɔbɛto mu nsonsonoe a ɛwɔ akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe, nwomasua, adwumayɛ ne akatua, mpɔtam hɔ ahobammɔ ne atɛntrenee mu wɔ nsɛmmɔnedi ho atɛntrenee mu," saa na gyinaesi no kenkan. Nsusuiɛ no de Community Reparations Commission a ɛbɛma nyansahyɛ a ɛyɛ nokware ama nhyehyɛeɛ ne nneɛma a wɔbɛkyekyɛ ama awieeɛ koraa no wɔbɛyɛ akatua no.[100] Asheville Kuropɔn Badwa no nso de adwene koro too aba wɔ Ayɛwohomumɔ bosome mu, da a ɛtɔ so 9, afe 2020 mu, sɛ wobeyi nkaedum mmienu a wɔaka abom no afiri hɔ esiane ahwehwɛdeɛ ahodoɔ a kuo bi a wɔfrɛ no "Black Asheville Demands"[101] de too dwa ne adwuma a Racial Justice Coalition ne adwuma a wɔyɛe no dii anim wɔ mmɔdenbɔ no mu.[102] Kuro no badwafoɔ nhyiamu no wɔ mpɔtam hɔfoɔ a wɔde wɔn ho hyɛɛ mu pii araa ma wɔtrɛw ɔmanfoɔ nsɛm mu dɔnhwere baako foforɔ sen berɛ a wɔtaa de yɛ nhyiamu no.[100]

San Francisco, California: Wɔ Ɔbɛnim bosome afe 2023 mu no, "San Francisco’s Board of Supervisors wɔde adwene koro gyee sika a wɔde tuaa ka a ɛyɛ dɔla ɔpepem 5 a wɔde tuaa Abibifoɔ a wɔfata sɛ wɔte hɔ no toom."[103]

Ahyehyɛdeɛ ahodoɔ ne ahyehyɛdeɛ ahodoɔ

Aetna: Ɔpaa kyɛw wɔ afe 2000 mu sɛ ɔde nkwa ho insurance nkrataa maa nkoa a wɔde tuaa nnipa a wɔde wɔn ayɛ nkoa nkwa firi c. 1853 kɔsi 1860.[104][105] Wɔ afe 2002 mu, bere a Farmer-Paellman de asɛm kɔdan Aetna, CSX ne Fleet sɛ wɔde "nhyehyɛe bi a ɛde nnipa yɛɛ nkoa, yɛɛ wɔn ayayadeɛ, ɔkɔm de wɔn na wɔde wɔn dii dwuma,"[106] wɔama wɔn ahonyadeɛ wɔ ɔkwan a ɛnteɛ so no, wɔpoo saa asɛm yi.[107][108]

Alabama Sukuupɔn: Ɔpaa kyɛw wɔ nkoasom ho abakɔsɛm wɔ sukuupɔn no mu wɔ afe 2004 mu.[109]

Georgetown Suapɔn: "Wɔ afe 2016 mu no [sukuupɔn no penee so] sɛ wɔbɛma nkoa 272 no asefo agye wɔn a wɔbɛgye wɔn atom[,] paa kyɛw wɔ ɔkwan a ɛfata so wɔ dwumadie a ɛdi wɔ nkoasom mu no ho [na] [sesaa] adan mmienu a ɛwɔ ne sukuupɔn no mu din de gyee nnipa a wɔde wɔn ayɛ nkoa no nkwa toom. Wɔ Ɔbɛnem bosome, afe 2019 mu no, sukuufoɔ a wɔwɔ Georgetown Suapɔn mu too aba sɛ wɔbɛma wɔn adesua ho ka akɔ soro $27.20 de anya nkoa 272 a Jesuitfoɔ a wɔhwɛɛ sukuu no so wɔ afe 1838 mu no asefoɔ so mfasoɔ.[110] Akyiri yi wɔ saa afe no mu, wɔ nhyɛsoɔ foforɔ ne akyi a efiri Georgetown Sukuupɔn Asuafoɔ Fekuo no hɔ akyi no,[111] awieeɛ koraa no, sukuupɔn no kɔɔ n’anim de nyansahyɛ a ɛte saa ara bae a asuafoɔ no amfa adesua ho ka a wɔmaa so no antua ka no.[112]

Harvard Suapɔn hyɛɛ aseɛ yɛɛ nhwehwɛmu wɔ abusuabɔ a ɛda ne nkoasom ntam wɔ afe 2007. Wɔ afe 2016 mu no Harvard titrani Drew Faust gye toom sɛ sukuupɔn no "ayɛ adwuma tẽẽ" wɔ nkoasom mu. Wɔ afe 2022 mu no sukuupɔn no tintim Harvard & the Legacy of Slavery a ne tenten boro nkratafa ɔha. Amanneɛbɔ no kaa nyansahyɛ ahodoɔ a wɔde mae sɛ wɔne abakɔsɛm mu Abibifoɔ kɔlege ne sukuupɔn ahodoɔ bɛyɛ nwomasua mu fekubɔ, ayɛ ɔmanfoɔ nkae, na wɔahu nnipa a sukuupɔn adwumayɛfoɔ, akannifoɔ ne akyerɛkyerɛfoɔ de wɔn ayɛ nkoa no asefoɔ a wɔte ase. Na US$100m endowment wɔ hɔ a wɔde bedi dwuma. Suapɔn no ama nkoa asefoɔ a wɔpɛ sɛ wɔgye wɔn kɔ sukuu no mu na wɔayɛ mpata sikakorabea ama wɔn.[113]

JP Morgan Chase: Ɔpaa kyɛw wɔ abusuabɔ a ɛda ne nkoasom ntam wɔ afe 2005 mu.[114]

Princeton Nyamekyerɛ Sukuu: Wɔ afe 2019 mu no Seminary no de too dwa sɛ wɔde dɔla ɔpepem 27 ahyɛ bɔ ama nnwuma ahodoɔ a wɔde bɛhunu sɛdeɛ ɛnya mfasoɔ firi abibifoɔ nkoasom mu. Wei ne sikasɛm mu ahofama kɛseɛ a nwomasua asoɛe bi de asie.[2]

Virginia Nyamekyerɛ Sukuu: Wɔde dɔla ɔpepem 1.7 sii hɔ sɛ wɔmfa ntua Amerikafoɔ a wɔyɛ abibifoɔ asefoɔ a wɔde wɔn yɛɛ nkoa sɛ wɔnkɔyɛ adwuma wɔ wɔn sukuupɔn mu no asefoɔ, a wodii kan kyekyɛe wɔ afe 2021 mu.[2][115]

Wachovia: Ɔpaa kyɛw wɔ abusuabɔ a ɛda ne nkoasom ntam wɔ afe 2005 mu.[116]

Baabi a menyaa mmoa firiiɛ

[sesa]
  1. ↑ Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations". NBC News. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations". University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020
  3. ↑ "Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?". The Royall House and Slave Quarters. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020.
  4. 1 2 3 Darity, William (2020). From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1469654973.
  5. ↑ Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained". Vox.
  6. ↑ "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?". The Guardian. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.
  7. ↑ Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer". The Washington Post.
  8. 1 2 3 "Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section". June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). "The Case for Reparations". The Atlantic.
  10. ↑ Marable, Manning. "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation". Retrieved September 18, 2020.
  11. ↑ Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)
  12. 1 2 Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  13. ↑ Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered". WLOS. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  14. ↑ "America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism". Time. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  15. ↑ Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  16. ↑ Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality". Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  17. ↑ Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). "The school to prison pipeline, explained". Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  18. ↑ "Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System". April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  19. ↑ Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). "Slavery in the US prison system". Al Jazeera. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  20. ↑ Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). Slavery and Justice (PDF). Brown University. OCLC 301709830.
  21. ↑ Heller, Mike (March 2019). "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist". George Fox University. Retrieved March 5, 2021
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  23. ↑ "The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation". Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  24. ↑ Nash, Gary B. (2017). Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0812294361.
  25. ↑ Heller, Mike (March 1, 2019). "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist (Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press, 2017)". Quaker Religious Thought. 132 (1). ISSN 0033-5088.
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  27. ↑ Redpath, James (1860). The public life of Capt. John Brown. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge.
  28. ↑ McKivigan, John R. (2008). Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801446733.
  29. ↑ "Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander
  30. ↑ McDaniel, W. Caleb. "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won". Smithsonian. Retrieved October 6, 2019.
  31. ↑ Berry, Mary Frances (2005). My Face Is Black Is True. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. ISBN 1-4000-4003-5.
  32. ↑ Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople". Prologue Magazine. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
  33. ↑ "Super Tuesday primaries, 2020". Ballotpedia. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  34. ↑ Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details". US News.
  35. ↑ Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice".
  36. ↑ Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act". Congress.gov. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020.
  37. ↑ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?". www.youtube.com. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.
  38. ↑ Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations". Ebony. Retrieved May 2, 2019.
  39. ↑ "2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?". NPR.org. Retrieved May 2, 2019.
  40. ↑ "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act". June 19, 2019.
  41. ↑ "S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act". Congress.gov. Retrieved July 12, 2019.
  42. ↑ David Weigel (April 4, 2019). "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage". Washington Post. Retrieved April 6, 2019. asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did
  43. ↑ David Catanese (April 3, 2019). "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved April 6, 2019. This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.
  44. ↑ "Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'". The Washington Times.
  45. ↑ Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved April 6, 2019.
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  47. ↑ Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). "The Case Against Slave Reparations" (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018.
  48. ↑ Why we need reparations for Black Americans - "Black Americans who were enslaved in the United States were valued at an estimated $3 billion in 1860". www.brookings.edu. Retrieved July 19, 2025
  49. ↑ "Peace Stamps". peacemission.info. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
  50. ↑ Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum". Seattle Times. Retrieved November 10, 2008.
  51. ↑ Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations". worldpress.org. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
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  53. 1 2 "Congress Apologizes for Slavery, Jim Crow". NPR. but made no mention of reparations.
  54. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "What States Have Apologized for Slavery". Blerd Planet. June 12, 2019. Archived from the original on January 3, 2020. Retrieved June 13, 2019.
  55. 1 2 Moyer, Justin (February 11, 2016). "Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 23, 2019.
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  57. ↑ Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience. Visible Ink Press. ISBN 978-1-57859-260-9.
  58. ↑ 28 U.S.C. § 1407
  59. ↑ http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf
  60. ↑ In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig., 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).
  61. ↑ "NAACP to target private business". The Washington Times. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
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  66. ↑ Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes". Retrieved October 25, 2024.
  67. ↑ "Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up". The Center for Popular Democracy. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020.
  68. ↑ Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). "The Black Plague". The New Yorker. Retrieved March 17, 2021.
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  79. ↑ "Victims of Eugenics Sterilization Compensation Program". Virginia Department of Behavioral Health and Developmental Services (DBHDS). Virginia Department of Behavioral Health and Developmental Services.
  80. ↑ "In re: African-American Slave Descents Ligation". Case Law. Retrieved July 9, 2019.
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  82. ↑ Greenhut, Steven (April 5, 2019). "Reparations Are More Likely to Divide the Nation Than Heal It". Reason.
  83. ↑ Siemaszko, Corky (July 8, 2019). "Sen. Mitch McConnell's great-great-grandfathers owned 14 slaves, bringing reparations issue close to home". NBC News. Retrieved January 29, 2021.
  84. ↑ Ted Barrett, Ted (June 19, 2019). "McConnell opposes paying reparations: 'None of us currently living are responsible' for slavery". CNN. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  85. ↑ "40% of black-owned businesses not expected to survive coronavirus". CBS News. June 22, 2020. Retrieved October 19, 2020.
  86. 1 2 Wood, Daniel (September 23, 2020). "As Pandemic Deaths Add Up, Racial Disparities Persist — And In Some Cases Worsen". NPR News. Retrieved October 30, 2020.
  87. ↑ Medish, Mark; Lucich, Daniel (August 30, 2019). "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations". NBC News. Retrieved October 21, 2023.
  88. ↑ "Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery". CNN. Retrieved October 21, 2023.
  89. 1 2 3 4 McCarthy, Kevin (February 1, 2012). Slavery Era Insurance Registry Laws (Report). OLR Research Report. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  90. ↑ Robinson, David (December 19, 2023). "NY to study reparations for slavery, possible direct payments to Black residents". Utica Observer-Dispatch.
  91. ↑ "Riley Signs Slavery Apology". Alabama Public Radio. May 31, 2007. Retrieved January 30, 2022.
  92. ↑ White, David (May 31, 2007). "Riley signs slavery-apology resolution". AL.com. Retrieved January 30, 2022.
  93. ↑ "House Passes Resolution to Apologize for Slavery". Hartford Courant. May 22, 2009.
  94. ↑ "Tennessee weighs an apology for slavery". April 16, 2014. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  95. ↑ "TN votes to express regret for slavery, but not apologize". Chattanooga Times Free Press. Associated Press. April 16, 2020.
  96. ↑ Penter, Caitlyn (June 16, 2020). "Confederate monuments to be moved from downtown Asheville". Retrieved July 15, 2020.
  97. ↑ Ready, Milton (June 25, 2015). "When past is present: Zeb Vance and his monument". Retrieved July 15, 2020.
  98. ↑ Walter, Rebecca (June 17, 2020). "Monumental decision: Buncombe County approves removal of Confederate statues".
  99. ↑ Hassan, Adeel; Healy, Jack (June 19, 2019). "America Has Tried Reparations Before. Here Is How It Went". The New York Times. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  100. 1 2 Burgess, Joel (July 14, 2020). "In historic move, Asheville approves reparations for Black residents". Citizen Times. Retrieved October 30, 2020.
  101. ↑ "City OKs monuments' removal, pending county approval". June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 15, 2020.
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  103. ↑ Grove, Rashad (March 16, 2023). "NEWS & POLITICS: SAN FRANCISCO BOARD APPROVES $5 MILLION REPARATION PAYMENTS FOR BLACK RESIDENTS". Ebony.
  104. ↑ Groark, Virginia (May 5, 2002). "Slave Policies". The New York Times. Retrieved May 2, 2010.
  105. ↑ "Ethics Newsline® » News » Aetna Apologizes For Pre-Civil-War Policies Issued On Lives Of Slaves". Globalethics.org. March 13, 2000. Archived from the original on October 17, 2013. Retrieved February 12, 2011.
  106. ↑ "Aetna, CSX, FleetBoston face slave reparations suit". USA Today. March 24, 2002. Retrieved May 2, 2010.
  107. ↑ Cox, James (January 26, 2004). "Judge rejects lawsuit seeking reparations". USA Today. Retrieved May 2, 2010.
  108. ↑ Olson, Walter (October 31, 2008). "So long, slavery reparations". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved May 2, 2010.
  109. ↑ Cruz, Gilbert (April 20, 2004). "UA apologizes for history of slavery". Tuscaloosa News. Retrieved January 30, 2022.
  110. ↑ "America Has Tried Reparations Before. Here Is How It Went". The New York Times. June 19, 2019. Retrieved July 12, 2020. In 2015, Chicago enacted a reparations ordinance covering hundreds of African Americans tortured by police from the 1970s to the 1990s. The law calls for $5.5 million in financial compensation, as well as hundreds of thousands more for a public memorial, and a range of assistance related to health, education and emotional well-being.
  111. ↑ Li, Amy (June 25, 2019). "Board of Directors Meets, Does Not Vote on GU272 Referendum". The Hoya. Georgetown University. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  112. ↑ Ebbs, Stephanie (October 30, 2019). "Georgetown University announces reparations fund to benefit descendants of slaves once sold by the school". ABC News. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  113. ↑ Moscufo, Michela (June 21, 2025). "Harvard hired a researcher to uncover its ties to slavery. He says the results cost him his job: 'We found too many slaves'". The Guardian.
  114. ↑ "JP Morgan admits US slavery links". BBC News. November 15, 2017. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
  115. ↑ Wright, Will (May 31, 2021). "Seminary Built on Slavery and Jim Crow Labor Has Begun Paying Reparations". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331.
  116. ↑ Katie Benner (June 2, 2005). "Wachovia apologizes for ties to slavery". CNN/Money. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
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