Hokwan a nnipa wɔ sɛ wonya nsu ne ahotew (Human right to water and sanitation)

Ɛfi Wikipedia
Hokwan a nnipa wɔ sɛ wonya nsu ne ahotew
human rights
titleThe human right to water and sanitation Sesa
publication date28 Kitawonsa 2010 Sesa
connects withright to a healthy environment Sesa
official websitehttp://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/ESCR/Pages/Water.aspx Sesa

  Hokwan a nnipa wɔ wɔ nsu ne ahotew ho (HRWS) yɛ nnyinasosɛm (principle) a ɛkyerɛ sɛ nsu pa a wɔnom (drinking water) ne ahotew (sanitation) yɛ amansan nyinaa hokwan a nnipa wɔ (human right) esiane sɛ ɛho hia kɛse wɔ onipa biara asetra a wɔbɛma atra hɔ no mu nti. Amanaman Nkabom Bagua Kɛse no (United Nations General Assembly) gye toom sɛ ɛyɛ onipa hokwan wɔ da a ɛtɔ so aduonu awotwe (28) bosome Kitawonsa afe 2010 (28 July 2010). Wɔagye HRWS atom wɔ amanaman ntam mmara mu (international law) denam nnipa hokwan apam (human rights treaties), mpaemuka (declarations) ne gyinapɛn afoforo so (other standards). Nkyerɛkyerɛmufoɔ binom de nsɛm a ɛkyerɛ sɛ amansan nyinaa hokwan a nnipa wɔ sɛ wɔnya nsuo wɔ hɔ no agyina nneɛma a ɛde ne ho firi afe 2010 Nhyiamu Kɛseɛ no gyinaesie no ho (2010 General Assembly resolution), te sɛ Amanaman Ntam Apam a ɛfa Sikasɛm, Asetena ne Amammerɛ Hokwan Ho (International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - ICESCR) no Ahyɛdeɛ (Article) 11.1 wɔ saa nkyerɛkyerɛmufo no mu no, wɔn a wogye tom sɛ amanaman ntam ius cogens wɔ hɔ na wobu no sɛ ɛka Apam no mu nhyehyɛe ahorow ho no kyerɛ sɛ hokwan a ɛte saa yɛ amanaman ntam mmara nnyinasosɛm a ɛkyekyere amansan nyinaa. Apam afoforo a egye HRWS tom pefee no bi ne afe 1979 Apam a ɛfa Nyiyim a Wɔyɛ Tia Mmea Nyinaa a Wobeyi Afi Hɔ (Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women - CEDAW) ne afe 1989 Apam a Ɛfa Hokwan a Mmofra Wɔ Ho (Convention on the Rights of the Child - CRC).

Amanaman Nkabom Boayikuw a Ɛhwɛ Sikasɛm, Asetra ne Amammerɛ Hokwan Ho Nsɛm So (United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights) na ɛde nkyerɛkyerɛmu a emu da hɔ sen biara a ɛfa hokwan a nnipa wɔ wɔ nsu ho no mae wɔ General Comment a etɔ so du-anum (15) a wɔkyerɛwee wɔ afe 2002 mu no mu. Na ɛyɛ nkyerɛase a ɛnyɛ nea ɛkyekyere sɛ nsu a wobenya no yɛ tebea a ɛma wonya hokwan a wɔwɔ sɛ wonya asetra pa (right to an adequate standard of living), a ɛne hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan pa a ɛkorɔn sen biara a wobetumi anya no wɔ abusuabɔ a wontumi ntetew mu, na enti ɛyɛ hokwan a nnipa wɔ. Ɛkae sɛ: "Hokwan a onipa wɔ sɛ onya nsu no ma obiara nya nsu a ɛdɔɔso, ahobammɔ wom, wogye tom, nea wotumi nya honam fam na ne bo nyɛ den a ɔde bedi dwuma wɔ n'ankasa ne fie."

Amanaman Nkabom Bagua Kɛse ne Amanaman Nkabom Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ Bagua no (UN Human Rights Council) na wɔpenee gyinaesi ahorow a edi kan a ɛfa HRWS ho no wɔ afe 2010. Wɔkae sɛ na hokwan a nnipa wɔ wɔ ahotew ho a ɛne hokwan a nnipa wɔ wɔ nsu ho no wɔ abusuabɔ, efisɛ ahotew a enni hɔ no ma nsu a ɛwɔ asubɔnten no ase no so tew, enti nkɔmmɔbɔ a edi hɔ no akɔ so asi hokwan abien no nyinaa abom so dua. Wɔ bosome Kitawonsa afe 2010 mu no, Amanaman Nkabom (UN) Bagua Kɛse Gyinaesi 64/292 (United Nations (UN) General Assembly Resolution 64/292) san sii hokwan a nnipa wɔ sɛ wonya nsu ne ahotew ho nhyehyɛe a ahobammɔ wom, ne bo nyɛ den, na ɛho tew a wobetumi anya so dua.[1] Wɔ saa Nhyiam Kɛse no mu no, ɛkaa sɛ, sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ na wɔate asetra mu anigye ne nnipa hokwan ahorow nyinaa ase no, wogye nsu a ahobammɔ wom na ɛho tew a wɔnom ne ahotew nso tom sɛ ɛyɛ hokwan a nnipa wɔ.[2] Amansan Nhyiam no Gyinaesi 64/292 a ɛka sɛ nnipa wɔ hokwan a obiara nya nsu a wɔnom ne ahotew a ɛyɛ papa na ɛho tew a wontua hwee no ma nsɛm sɔre a ɛfa hokwan ahorow a aban wɔ sɛ ɛhwɛ so ne asɛyɛde ahorow a ɛwɔ sɛ wɔbɛma saa nsu ne ahotew no anya ahobammɔ ho. Amanaman Nkabom Nkɔso Dwumadi no (United Nations Development Programme) aka sɛ hia a ɛho hia sɛ wonya nsu ne ahotew ho nhyehyɛe a wotumi de ho to so na ɛho tew a wobegye atom kɛse no bɛma wɔatrɛw asetra a ahoɔden wom na abotɔyam wom mu kɛse.[3][4][5] UN gyinaesi bi a wɔayɛ mu nsakrae wɔ afe 2015 mu no sii so dua sɛ hokwan abien (2) no yɛ soronko nanso ɛyɛ pɛ.

HRWS hyɛ aban ahorow sɛ wɔnhwɛ sɛ nkurɔfo betumi anya nsu (water) ne ahotew (sanitation) a ɛyɛ papa (quality), ɛwɔ hɔ (available), wogye tom (acceptable), wotumi nya (accessible), na ne bo nyɛ den (affordable). Nsu a ne bo yɛ den no susuw baabi a nsu ho ka bɛyɛ nea esiw ano ma enti ɛhwehwɛ sɛ obi de nneɛma ne nnwuma afoforo a ɛho hia a obenya bɔ afɔre. Mpɛn pii no, mmara a ɛfa nsuo a ne boɔ yɛ den ho ne sɛ ɛnsɛ sɛ ɛboro afie sika 3–5%. Nsu a wobetumi anya no susuw bere a egye, sɛnea ɛyɛ mmerɛw sɛ wobedu baabi a nsu fi no ne asiane ahorow a ɛwɔ mu bere a worekɔ nsu fibea no ho.[6] Ɛsɛ sɛ ɔman ba biara tumi nya nsu, a ɛkyerɛ sɛ ɛnsɛ sɛ nsu no kɔ akyiri sen mita 1,000 anaa anammɔn 3,280 na ɛsɛ sɛ ɛkɔ simma 30 mu. Nsuo a ɛwɔ hɔ no susu sɛ ebia nsuo a wɔde ma no wɔ dodoɔ a ɛfata, ɛyɛ nea wotumi de ho to so na ɛtumi tra hɔ daa.[6] Nsu pa susuw ho sɛ ebia nsu yɛ nea asiane biara nni ho sɛ wɔbɛnom, a nea ɛka ho ne sɛ wɔbɛnom anaa dwumadi afoforo.[6] Sɛ nsu betumi agye atom a, ɛnsɛ sɛ ɛyɛ huam biara na ɛnsɛ sɛ ɛyɛ kɔla biara.

ICESCR hwehwɛ sɛ aman a wɔde wɔn nsa ahyɛ ase no de nkakrankakra nya hokwan ahorow a nnipa wɔ nyinaa, a nsu ne ahotew de ka ho, na wobu wɔn. Ɛsɛ sɛ wɔyɛ adwuma ntɛmntɛm na wɔyɛ adwuma yiye de ma nnwuma a wonya no kɔ soro na wɔma ɔsom no tu mpɔn.[7]

Amanaman ntam nsɛm a ɛfa ho (International context)[sesa]

WHO/UNICEF Nkabom Nhyehyɛe a Ɛhwɛ Nsuo a Wɔde Ma ne Ahotew Ho (WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation) bɔɔ amanneɛ sɛ nnipa ɔpepem 663 (663 million) antumi annya nsuo a wɔnom (drinking water) a wɔatu mpɔn na nnipa bɛboro ɔpepepem 2.4 annya ahotew ho dwumadie titire wɔ afe 2015 mu. Nsu pa a wobenya no yɛ ɔhaw kɛse ma wiase mmeae pii. Nneɛma a wogye tom no bi ne "afie nkitahodi, ɔmanfo gyinabea nsu afiri, abura a wɔtow, abura a wɔatu a wɔabɔ ho ban, nsuten a wɔabɔ ho ban ne osu nsu a wɔboaboa ano."[8] Ɛwom sɛ wiase nyinaa nnipa ɔha biara mu nkyem 9 nni nsu de, nanso "mpɔtam bi wɔ hɔ a ɛkyɛ titiriw, te sɛ Afrika Sahara Anafo fam (Sub-Saharan Africa)".[8] UN si so dua bio sɛ “mmofra a wonnii mfe anum bɛyɛ ɔpepem 1.5 (1.5 million) wuwu afe biara na sukuu nna ɔpepem 443 (443 million) yera esiane nyarewa a ɛfa nsu ne ahotew ho nti.”[9]

Mmara fapem ne gye a wogye tom (Legal foundations and recognition)[sesa]

Amanaman Ntam Apam a Ɛfa Sikasɛm, Asetra ne Amammerɛ Hokwan Ho (International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - ICESCR) a wɔyɛe wɔ afe 1966 mu no hyehyɛɛ sikasɛm, asetra, ne amammerɛ mu hokwan ahorow a wohu wɔ Amansan Mpaemuka a Ɛfa Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ (Universal Declaration on Human Rights - UDHR) a wɔyɛe wɔ afe 1948 mu no ho mmara. Saa nkrataa a edi kan yi mu biara annye hokwan a nnipa wɔ wɔ nsu ne ahotew ho ntom pefee. Nanso, na amanaman ntam nnipa hokwan ho apam ahorow pii a wɔyɛe akyiri yi no wɔ nhyehyɛe ahorow a egye hokwan ahorow a wɔwɔ wɔ nsu ne ahotew ho tom pefee.

  • 1979 Apam a ɛfa nyiyim a wɔyɛ tia mmea nyinaa a wobeyi afi hɔ (CEDAW) no wɔ Ahyɛde 14.2 a ɛka sɛ "afa horow no bɛyɛ nea ɛfata nyinaa de ayi nyiyim a wɔyɛ mmea wɔ nkuraase no afi hɔ de ahwɛ ahu sɛ, egyina mmarima ne mmea pɛyɛ so, . sɛ wɔde wɔn ho bɛhyɛ nkuraase nkɔsoɔ mu na wɔanya so mfasoɔ na titire no wɔbɛhwɛ ama mmaa anya hokwan:... (h) Sɛ wɔbɛnya asetena mu tebea a ɛfata, titire wɔ adan, ahotew, anyinam ahoɔden ne nsuo a wɔde ma, akwantuo ne nkitahodiɛ ho.
  • 1989 Apam a Ɛfa Mmofra Hokwan Ho (CRC) no wɔ Ahyɛde 24 a ɛkyerɛ sɛ "afa horow no gye hokwan a abofra no wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan gyinapɛn a ɛkorɔn sen biara a wobetumi anya mu anigye ne mmeae a wɔbɛsa yare na wɔasan asiesie akwahosan ... . Aman a wɔyɛ apam no bɛdi hokwan yi a wɔde bedi dwuma koraa akyi na, titire no, wɔbɛyɛ nneɛma a ɛfata... (c) Sɛ wɔbɛko atia nyarewa ne aduan pa a wonnya nni, a akwahosan ho nhyehyɛe a edi kan no mu ka ho, denam, nea ɛka ho ne... nnuan a ahoɔden wom a ɛfata a wɔde bɛma so ne nsu a ɛho tew a wɔnom. . ."
  • Afe 2006 Apam a ɛfa Hokwan a Nnipa a Wɔadi M dɛm Wɔ (CRPD) no wɔ Ahyɛde 28(2)(a) a ɛhwehwɛ sɛ "afa horow no gye hokwan a nnipa a wɔadi dɛm wɔ sɛ wonya asetra mu ahobammɔ ne sɛ wonya saa hokwan no mu anigye a nyiyim biara nni ho no tom mmubuafoɔ, na ɔbɛyɛ anammɔn a ɛfata de abɔ saa hokwan yi ho ban na wɔahyɛ ho nkuran, a nea ɛka ho ne akwan a wɔbɛfa so ahwɛ ama nnipa a wɔadi dɛm anya nsuo pa ho dwumadie pɛpɛɛpɛ, na wɔahwɛ sɛ wɔbɛnya nnwuma a ɛfata na ne boɔ yɛ den, mfiri ne mmoa foforɔ a ɛfa mmubuafoɔ ho ahiade ahorow."

"Amanaman Ntam Mmara a Ɛfa Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ Ho (The International Bill of Human Rights)"- a ɛka bom yɛ 1966: Amanaman Ntam Apam a Ɛfa Ɔmanfo ne Amanyɔsɛm Hokwan Ho (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights - ICCPR); 1966: Amanaman Ntam Apam a Ɛfa Sikasɛm, Asetra, ne Amammerɛ Hokwan Ho (International Covenant of Economic, Social, and Cultural Right - ICERS) a wɔyɛe wɔ afe 1966 mu no Ahyɛde 11 ne 12; ne 1948: Amansan Mpaemuka a Ɛfa Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ Ho (Universal Declaration of Human Rights - UDHR) Ahyɛde 25 kyerɛw sɛnea nnipa hokwan a wɔwɔ sɛ wonya nsu ne ahotew ne hokwan afoforo a ɛfa nsu ho no dannan a wobegye atom wɔ wiase nyinaa mmara mu.[10]

Nhomanimfo nso twee adwene sii hia a ɛho hia sɛ ebia UN gye hokwan ahorow a nnipa wɔ wɔ nsu ne ahotew ho tom wɔ afeha a ɛto so aduonu no awiei no so. Mmɔden abien a edi kan a wɔbɔe sɛ wɔbɛkyerɛkyerɛ hokwan a nnipa wɔ sɛ wonya nsu mu no fi mmara ho ɔbenfo (law professor) Stephen McCaffrey a ɔwɔ Pacific Sukuupɔn mu wɔ afe 1992 [11] ne Oduruyɛfo (Dr.) Peter Gleick wɔ mu.[12] McCaffrey kae sɛ "Wobetumi asusuw hokwan a ɛte saa ho sɛ hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya aduan anaa aduan, hokwan a ɔwɔ sɛ onya akwahosan (right to health), anaasɛ nea ɛho hia sen biara no, hokwan a ɔwɔ sɛ onya nkwa no fa.[11] Gleick de kaa ho sɛ: "sɛ nsu a wɔhwehwɛ titiriw bi a wobenya no yɛ hokwan titiriw a nnipa wɔ a amanaman ntam mmara, mpaemuka ahorow, ne Ɔman nneyɛe gyina akyi pefee na ɛda adi pefee." [12]

Amanaman Nkabom Boayikuw a Ɛhwɛ Sikasɛm, Asetra ne Amammerɛ Hokwan So (Committee for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - CESCR) a ɛhwɛ ICESCR a wodi so no baa nsɛm a ɛte sɛ nea nhomanimfo yi de General Comment 15 wɔ afe 2002 mu no baa awiei Ɛhui sɛ hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya nsu no yɛ hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya asetra pa no (right to an adequate standard of living) fa wɔ ɔkwan a ɛda adi pefee so na ɛfa hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya akwahosan pa a ɛkorɔn sen biara a wobetumi anya ne hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya adan a ɛfata ne aduan a ɛfata ho.[13] Ɛkyerɛkyerɛ mu sɛ "Hokwan a onipa wɔ wɔ nsuo ho no ma obiara nya nsuo a ɛdɔɔso, ahotɔ, ɛgye tom, honam fam nya na ne boɔ yɛ den a ɔde bedi dwuma wɔ n'ankasa ne afie mu." Nsuo pa dodoɔ a ɛfata ho hia na wɔasiw owuo a ɛfiri nsuo a ɛho ayɛ fĩ mu ano, na ama asiane a ɛwɔ hɔ sɛ wobenya nyarewa a ɛfiri nsuo mu no so ate na ama wɔatumi anom, aduanenoa, ankorankoro ne ofie ahotew ho ahwehwɛdeɛ." Aman pii penee so na wogye toom wɔ ɔkwan a ɛfata so sɛ hokwan a wɔwɔ sɛ wonya nsu ka wɔn apam no mu asɛyɛde ahorow ho wɔ ICESCR ase (sɛ nhwɛso no, Germany; United Kingdom; Netherlands) bere a wotintim General Comment 15 no akyi.

Wɔyɛɛ anammɔn foforɔ wɔ afe 2005 mu a kan UN Badwa ketewa a ɛhwɛ Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ Nkɔsoɔ ne Wɔn Ho Ban (Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights) a ɛde akwankyerɛ maeɛ a ɛbɛboa aban ahodoɔ ama wɔanya hokwan a nnipa wɔ wɔ nsuo ne ahoteɛ ho na wɔdi obuo. Saa akwankyerɛ yi maa UN Nnipa Hokwan Bagua no (Human Rights Council) de Catarina de Albuquerque (Catarina de Albuquerque) yɛɛ adwuma sɛ ɔbenfo a ɔde ne ho wɔ asɛm a ɛfa nnipa hokwan asɛyɛde ahorow a ɛfa nsu pa a wɔnom ne ahotew a wobenya ho wɔ afe Ɔkyerɛw amanneɛbɔ bi a ɛkɔ akyiri wɔ afe 2009 mu a ɛkyerɛɛ nnipa hokwan asɛyɛde ahorow wɔ ahotew ho, na CESCR buae sɛ ɛsɛ sɛ aman nyinaa gye ahotew tom.

Nkitahodi a emu yɛ den akyi no, aman 122 gyee "Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ wɔ Nsu ne Ahotew Ho" toom wɔ ɔkwan a ɛfata so wɔ Amansan Nhyiam no Gyinaesi 64/292 mu wɔ 28 July 2010. Ɛgye toom sɛ onipa biara wɔ hokwan sɛ ɔnya nsuo a ɛdɔɔso a ɔde bedi dwuma wɔ n’ankasa ne fie (ɛfiri lita 50 kɔsi 100 ma onipa biara da biara), a ɛsɛ sɛ ɛyɛ nea ahotɔ, wɔgye tom na ne boɔ yɛ den (ɛnsɛ sɛ nsuo ho ka boro 3% wɔ ofie sika a wonya), ne nea wotumi nya honam fam (ɛsɛ sɛ nsu fibea no fi fie no ntam kwan yɛ mita 1,000 na ɛnsɛ sɛ bere a wɔde boaboa ano no boro simma 30)." [9] Amansan Nhyiam no kae sɛ nsu pa a wɔnom "ho hia na ama wɔanya asetra mu anigye koraa ne nnipa hokwan afoforo nyinaa".[9] Wɔ September 2010 mu no, Amanaman Nkabom Bagua a Ɛhwɛ Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ So no gyee gyinaesi bi toom sɛ hokwan a nnipa wɔ sɛ wonya nsu ne ahotew ka hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya asetra pa ho (right to an adequate standard of living).

Wɔtrɛw Catarina de Albuquerque (Catarina de Albuquerque) ahyɛde sɛ "Onimdefo a ɔde ne ho wɔ asɛm a ɛfa nnipa hokwan asɛyɛde ahorow a ɛfa nsu pa a wɔnom ne ahotew a wobenya ho" no mu na wɔsesaa ne din sɛ "Amanneɛbɔfo Titiriw a ɛfa hokwan a nnipa wɔ wɔ nsu pa a wɔnom ne ahotew ho" wɔ gyinaesi ahorow a wɔyɛe wɔ 2010 mu. Ɔnam amanneɛbɔ ahorow a ɔde kɔmaa Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ Bagua ne Amanaman Nkabom Bagua Kɛse no so kɔɔ so maa hokwan a nnipa wɔ sɛ wonya nsu ne ahotew no kɛse ne emu mu daa hɔ. Sɛ Amanneɛbɔfoɔ Titiriw no, ɔkaa nsɛm te sɛ: Nnipa Hokwan Asɛdeɛ a Ɛfa Ɔsom a Ɛnyɛ Ɔman de a Wɔde Ma wɔ Nsuo ne Ahotew mu (2010); Sika a wɔde bɛma de ayɛ Hokwan a ɛwɔ Nsuo ne Ahotew ho (2011); Nsuo fĩ ho dwumadie wɔ hokwan a ɛwɔ hɔ ma nsuo ne ahotew ho (2013); ne Sustainability ne non-retrogression wɔ hokwan a ɛwɔ hɔ ma nsuo ne ahotew (2013). Wɔpaw Léo Heller wɔ afe 2014 mu sɛ ɔnyɛ Amanneɛbɔfo Titiriw a ɔto so abien a ɔhwɛ hokwan ahorow a nnipa wɔ wɔ nsu pa a wɔnom ne ahotew ho.

Gyinaesi ahorow a edii hɔ bae no trɛw Amanneɛbɔfo Titiriw no adwuma mu na wɔkyerɛkyerɛɛ ɔman biara dwumadi wɔ hokwan ahorow yi a wobu mu no mu. Wɔafrɛ Amansan Nhyiamu Gyinaesi 7/169 a ɛbaa afe 2015 a ɛyɛ nnansa yi ara no sɛ mpaemuka a ɛne "Hokwan a Nnipa wɔ wɔ Nsuo a Wɔnom ne Ahotew a Dwoodwoo Ho. Egyee nsonsonoe a ɛda hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya nsu ne hokwan a ɔwɔ sɛ onya ahotew ntam no toom. Wɔyɛɛ saa gyinaesi yi esiane hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya ahotew a wobu ani gu so bere a wɔde toto hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya nsu ho no ho dadwen nti.

Amanaman ntam mmara ho nimdeɛ (International jurisprudence)[sesa]

Amerika Ntam Asɛnnibea a Ɛhwɛ Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ So (Inter-American Court of Human Rights)[sesa]

Wɔasusuw hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya nsu ho wɔ Amerika Asɛnnibea a Ɛhwɛ Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ So (Inter-American Court of Human Rights) asɛm a ɛne Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay .[14] Nsɛm no fa aman no a wɔannye hokwan ahorow a aborɔfo wɔ wɔ nananom nsase so no ntom ho. Wɔ afe 1991 mu no, ɔman no yii Sawhoyamaxafo a wɔyɛ aborɔfo no fii asase no so a ɛmaa wɔhweree nnwuma titiriw a ɛho hia, te sɛ nsu, aduan, sukuu ne akwahosan ho nnwuma.[14] Eyi hyɛɛ Amerika Apam a Ɛfa Hokwan a Nnipa Wɔ Ho no (American Convention on Human Rights) ase; hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ ɔtra ase a ɛtow hyɛ so. Nsu ka hokwan yi ho, sɛ asase a wobenya no fa. Na asennibea ahorow no hwehwɛ sɛ wɔsan de nsase no ma, wɔde akatua ma, na wɔde nneɛma ne nnwuma atitiriw di dwuma, bere a na mpɔtam hɔfo reyɛ nhyehyɛe ama wɔasan de wɔn nsase no ama no.[15]

Amanaman Ntam Asoɛe a Ɛhwɛ Sikasɛm mu Ntawntawdi Ho Nsɛm So (International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes)[sesa]

Nsɛm a edidi so yi a efi Amanaman Ntam Asoɛe a Ɛhwɛ Sikasɛm mu Ntawntawdi Ho Nsɛm So ( ICSID ) no fa apam ahorow a aban ne nnwumakuw ntam sɛ wɔbɛhwɛ nsu akwan so no ho. Ɛwom sɛ nsɛm no fa nsɛmmisa a ɛfa sika a wɔde bɛto mu ho de, nanso nkyerɛkyerɛmufo ahyɛ no nsow sɛ nkɛntɛnso a ɛnteɛ a hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya nsu nya wɔ atemmu ahorow no so no yɛ kɛse.[16] Wiase Sikakorabea no nsɛm kyerɛ sɛ nsuo a wɔde kɔ ankorankoro nsa no kɔɔ soro firii 1990 mfeɛ no mu na nkɔsoɔ kɛseɛ kɔɔ so wɔ ankorankoro adwumayɛ mu kosii 2000 mfeɛ no mu.

Azurix Corp ne asɛm no ntam. Argentina (Azurix Corp v. Argentina)[sesa]

Asɛm a edi kan a ɛda nsow a ɛfa hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya nsu wɔ ICSID no mu ne nea ɛfa Azurix Corp v. Argentina.[17] Na akasakasa no wɔ Argentina Republic ne Azurix Corporation (Azurix Corporation) ntam a ɛfa abirabɔ a efi mfe 30 apam a ɛda afa horow no ntam sɛ wɔbɛyɛ nsu a wɔde ma wɔ amantam ahorow mu no ho. Wɔde adwene bi a ɛfa hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya nsu ho no yɛ nea ɛda adi pefee wɔ bere a wɔresusuw akatua ho no, faako a wosusuwii sɛ Azurix wɔ hokwan sɛ onya mfaso a ɛfata wɔ sika a wɔde asie no bo a ɛsom wɔ gua so no so. Na eyi yɛ sen U.S. dɔla ɔpepem 438.6 a wɔsrɛe no, na ɔde too gua sɛ aguadifo a ɔwɔ ntease rentumi nhwɛ kwan sɛ obenya mfaso a ɛte saa, esiane anohyeto ahorow a ɛwɔ nsu bo a ɛkɔ soro ne nkɔso a ɛho behia na ama wɔahwɛ ahu sɛ nsu ho nhyehyɛe a ɛyɛ adwuma yiye na ɛho tew no nti.[18]

Biwater Gauff Ltd ne asɛmpatrɛwfo. Tanzania na ɛwɔ hɔ (Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania)[sesa]

Nea ɛto so abien no, asɛm a ɛte saa ara a ICSID hyiae ne nea ɛfa Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania.[19] Na eyi yɛ asɛm a ɛfa ankorankoro nsu adwumakuw bi a wɔne aban bi wɔ apam mu akasakasa bi mu, saa bere yi de United Republic of Tanzania. Na saa apam yi yɛ Dar es Salaam nsuo nhyehyɛeɛ no dwumadie ne ne sohwɛ. Wɔ May 2005 mu no, Tanzania aban no twaa apam a wɔne Biwater Gauff yɛe no mu esiane sɛ wɔkyerɛ sɛ wɔanni adwumayɛ ho bɔhyɛ ahorow so nti. Wɔ July 2008 mu no, Asɛnnibea no de ne gyinaesi mae wɔ asɛm no ho, na wɔkae sɛ Tanzania aban no abu apam a wɔne Biwater Gauff yɛe no so.[20] Nanso amfa sika a wɔsɛee no amma Biwater, na egye toom sɛ ɔmanfo yiyedi ho dadwen na ɛho hia sen biara wɔ akasakasa no mu.

Hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya nsu wɔ ofie mmara mu (Right to water in domestic law)[sesa]

Sɛ amanaman ntam ahyehyɛde biara nni hɔ a ebetumi ahyɛ no den a, hokwan a nnipa wɔ sɛ wonya nsu no gyina ɔman asennibea ahorow dwumadi so.[21] Wɔde sikasɛm, asetena ne amammerɛ hokwan ahorow (ESCR) a wɔde ahyɛ mmarahyɛ bagua mu denam akwan abien no mu biako so na ɛde eyi nnyinaso asi hɔ: sɛ "akwankyerɛ nnyinasosɛm" a ɛyɛ botae ahorow na mpɛn pii no ɛnyɛ nea ɛfata; anaasɛ sɛnea wɔabɔ ho ban pefee na wɔde adi dwuma denam asennibea ahorow so.[22]

South Africa[sesa]

Nnipa kuw bi a wɔahyiam wɔ ɔmanfo tap bi ho mfonini wɔ Johannesburg, South Africa.

Wɔ South Africa, wɔde hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya nsu no ahyɛ mmarahyɛ bagua no mu na wɔde mmara a wɔtaa de di dwuma no di dwuma. Eyi yɛ adanse a ɛkyerɛ sɛ wɔayɛ nsakrae ketewaa bi wɔ ɔkwan a ɛto so abien a wɔfa so yɛ mmarahyɛ bagua a wɔfrɛ no "mmarahyɛde nketewa nhwɛso" no mu. Eyi kyerɛ sɛ wɔyɛ hokwan no mu nsɛm ne nea wɔde di dwuma no fa kɛse no ara sɛ ɔman no mu mmara a ɛyɛ ɔkwan biara so a ɛwɔ ɔman mmara mu gyinabea bi.[23]

Wɔn a wɔte Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Mpɔtam Bagua[sesa]

Asɛm a edi kan a ɛda nsow a asennibea ahorow no yɛɛ saa wɔ mu ne Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Mpɔtam Bagua.[24] Wɔn a wɔte adan akɛse bi (Bon Vista Mansions) mu na wɔde asɛm no bae, bere a mpɔtam hɔ Bagua no twaa nsu a wɔde ma no mu, a efii nsu ho ka a wɔantua no mu bae no akyi. Asɛnnibea no kae sɛ sɛnea wodi South Africa Amanyɔ Mmara no so no (South African Constitution), sɛ wɔ amansan mmara mu no, ɛsɛ sɛ nnipa nyinaa nya nsu sɛ hokwan.[25]

Nsusuwii foforo a wɔde sii gyinae no gyinaa Nsɛm a Wɔkae 12 a Ɛfa Hokwan a Wɔwɔ sɛ Onya Aduan ho, a Amanaman Nkabom Boayikuw a Ɛhwɛ Sikasɛm, Asetra ne Amammerɛ Hokwan Ho So de mae a ɛde asɛyɛde too aman a wɔayɛ apam no so sɛ wɔbɛhwɛ na wɔabu aduan a ɛfata a wɔanya dedaw no so na wɔabu wɔn denam nea wɔremfa nni dwuma no so nneɛma biara a ɛbɛtow ahyɛ so.[26]

Asɛnnibea no hui sɛ nsu fibea a ɛwɔ hɔ dedaw a na enni South Africa Nsu Ho Mmara no mu ahwehwɛde ahorow a "ɛfata na ntease wom" no a wobegyae no yɛ nea mmara mma ho kwan.[27] Ɛho hia sɛ yɛhyɛ no nsow sɛ gyinaesi no dii kan gyee UN General Comment No.15.[28]

Mazibuko v. Johannesburg Kuropɔn mu (Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg)[sesa]

Wɔsan kaa nsu dodow a ɛsɛ sɛ wɔde ma no ho asɛm wɔ Mazibuko v. Johannesburg Kuropɔn mu.[29] Na asɛm no fa nsu a wɔde fa nsu afiri mu kyekyɛ kɔ Phiri, Soweto mmeae a akyɛ sen biara no biako ho. Saa asɛm yi fa nsɛm atitiriw abien ho: sɛ́ ebia na kurow no nhyehyɛe a ɛfa nsu titiriw a wɔde ma kwa, kilolita 6 ɔsram biara ma akontaabufo biara a ɔwɔ kurow no mu no ne South Africa Amanyɔ Mmara no Ɔfa 27 anaa Nsu Ho Dwumadibea no Ɔfa dubaako (11) bɔ abira anaasɛ ɛnte saa yɛ.[30] Asɛm a ɛtɔ so abien (2) ne sɛ ebia na nsu mita a wɔadi kan atua ho ka a wɔde besisi hɔ no yɛ mmara kwan so anaasɛ ɛnte saa. Wɔkae wɔ Asɛnnibea Kunini no mu sɛ kurow no mmara nkyerɛ sɛ wɔde mita besisi hɔ na sɛ wɔde besisi hɔ no yɛ nea mmara mma ho kwan. Bio nso, esiane sɛ mita ahorow no gyaee nsu a wɔde kɔ atrae bere a nsu titiriw a wɔde ma kwa no aba awiei no, wobuu eyi sɛ nsu a wɔde ma no a wɔagyae a mmara mma ho kwan. Asɛnnibea no kae sɛ ɛsɛ sɛ wɔma Phirifo nsu titiriw a wontua hwee a ɛyɛ lita 50 ma onipa biara da biara.[31] Adwuma a Center for Applied Legal Studies (CALS) a ɛwɔ Witwatersrand Sukuupɔn a ɛwɔ Johannesburg (University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg), South Africa ne Pacific Institute a ɛwɔ Oakland, California no kyɛ 2008 Business Ethics Network BENNY Award wɔ adwuma a wɔyɛe wɔ asɛm yi ho.[32] Pacific Asoɛe no de mmara kwan so adanse a egyina adwuma a Oduruyɛfo Peter Gleick yɛe a ɔkyerɛkyerɛɛ hokwan a onipa wɔ sɛ onya nsu mu na ɔkyerɛɛ nnipa ahiade atitiriw a ɛfa nsu ho dodow so mae.[33]

Nnipa akɛse a wobisabisaa wɔn nsɛm no de asɛm no kɔɔ Asɛnnibea Kunini a Ɛhwɛ Asɛm a Wɔde Kɔdan Asɛnnibea ( SCA ) a ɛkae sɛ wɔde mmara mu mfomso kɛse bi a ɛfa kurow no asɛyɛde a ɛne sɛ ɛde nea ɛba fam koraa a wɔahyɛ wɔ South Africa Ɔman Gyinapɛn, ɛno nti wɔde too nkyɛn.[34] Asɛnnibea no nso kae sɛ dodow a wɔde ma nnipa asetra a nidi wom a ɛne ɔman mmara no nkyekyem 27 hyia no yɛ nokwarem no lita 42 ma onipa biara da biara sen sɛ ɛbɛyɛ lita 50 ma onipa biara da biara. SCA no kae sɛ nsu mita a wɔde besisi hɔ no yɛ nea mmara mma ho kwan, nanso wogyaee ahyɛde no mfe abien sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a kurow no benya hokwan asiesie tebea no.[35]

Nsɛm no kɔɔ akyiri kɔɔ Ɔman Mmara Asɛnnibea (Constitutional Court), a ɛkae sɛ asɛyɛde a ɔman mmara no de aba no hwehwɛ sɛ ɔman no fa mmara ne nneɛma afoforo a ntease wom nkakrankakra na ama wɔatumi anya hokwan a ɔwɔ sɛ onya nsu, wɔ nea ɛwɔ hɔ no mu. Amanyɔ Mmara Asɛnnibea no nso kae sɛ ɛyɛ asɛm a ɛsɛ sɛ mmarahyɛ bagua ne aban mpanyimfo kuw no yɛ adwuma wɔ wɔn sikasɛm nhyehyɛe a wɔma ho kwan no mu na wɔn nhyehyɛe ahorow a wɔbɛhwehwɛ mu yiye no yɛ asɛm a ɛfa demokrase akontaabu ho. Enti, emu nsɛm a ɛsua koraa a mmara 3(b) no de ato hɔ no yɛ mmarahyɛ bagua mu de, ɛma ahyehyɛde ahorow no twe wɔn ho kɔ soro na ɛkɔ so no, ɛnyɛ nea ɛfata sɛ asɛnnibea bi kyerɛ sɛnea wobenya asetra ne sikasɛm mu hokwan biara a aban no ayɛ sɛ wɔde bedi dwuma no.[36] Na asennibea ahorow no de wɔn adwene asi wɔn nhwehwɛmu no so mmom sɛ ebia anammɔn a Aban atu no yɛ nea ntease wom, ne sɛ ebia Aban no de ne nhyehyɛe ahorow no hyɛ mu hwɛ mu daa anaa.[23] Wɔakasa atia atemmu no sɛ ɛde "adwene a ɛto anohyeto a ɛho nhia a ɛfa atemmufo obu ho" dii dwuma.[37]

India[sesa]

Nsɛm abien a ɛda nsow sen biara wɔ India a ɛfa hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya nsu ho no da no adi sɛ ɛwom sɛ wɔammɔ eyi ho ban pefee wɔ India Amanyɔ Mmara no mu de, nanso asennibea ahorow no akyerɛ ase sɛ hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ ɔtra ase no ka hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya nsu a ahobammɔ wom na ɛdɔɔso ho.[38]

Jamuna Asubɔnten, asubɔnten a na Haryana mantam ne Delhi kurow no de redi dwuma no mfonini.

Delhi Nsuo a Wɔde Ma v. Haryana mantam mu (Delhi Water Supply v. State of Haryana)[sesa]

Ɛha no, nsuo a wɔde di dwuma ho akasakasa sɔree esiane nokwasɛm a ɛyɛ sɛ na Haryana mantam no de Asubɔnten Jamuna redi dwuma de agugu nnɔbae so, bere a na Delhifo hia no sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a wɔbɛnom nsu nti. Wɔkyerɛe sɛ ofie a wɔde di dwuma no boro nsu a wɔde di dwuma wɔ aguadi mu no so na asennibea no sii gyinae sɛ ɛsɛ sɛ Haryana ma nsu a ɛdɔɔso ma ɛkɔ Delhi ma wɔde di dwuma na wɔde di dwuma wɔ fie.[39]

Subhash Kumar ne asɛm no mu. Bihar Mantam mu (Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar)[sesa]

Nea ɛda nsow nso ne asɛm a ɛfa Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar, faako a wɔde ɔmanfo yiyedi ho asɛm kɔdan adesrɛ sɛ wɔmfa nsu a ɛyɛ fĩ a efi mmeae a wɔhoro nneɛma kɔ Bokaro Asubɔnten no mu no. Asɛnnibea ahorow no hui sɛ hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya nkwa, sɛnea India Amanyɔ Mmara no Ahyɛde aduonu baako (21) bɔ ho ban no, ka hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ obenya nsu a efĩ nnim mu. Asɛm no dii nkogu wɔ nokwasɛm ahorow no so na wɔkyerɛe sɛ ɛnyɛ ɔmanfo yiyedi biara nti na wɔde adesrɛ no kɔe na mmom nea ɔde asɛm no kɔdan no no ankasa yiyedi nti na enti asɛm no a wɔbɛtoa so no bɛyɛ sɛ wɔde asɛm no di dwuma ɔkwammɔne so.[39]

Wiase Nyinaa Hokwan a Wɔde Ma Nsu Da (World Rights to Water Day)[sesa]

Nsu ho hia na ama abɔde a nkwa wom a nnipa ka ho wɔ hɔ. Enti, sɛ obi benya nsu a ɛho tew na ɛfata a, ɛyɛ hokwan a onipa wɔ a wontumi nnye mfi ne nsam. Enti, Eco Needs Foundation (ENF) bu no sɛ ɛho hia sɛ wogye hokwan a ɔwɔ sɛ onya nsu (a wɔhwɛ ma obiara nya nsu dodow a ɛba fam koraa) tom denam mmara kwan so nhyehyɛe a wɔada no adi a ɛfata so. Amanaman Nkabom no ne n’apam ahorow pii no de ayɛ ahyɛde sɛ aman nyinaa hwɛ hu sɛ wɔbɛkyekyɛ nsu pɛpɛɛpɛ wɔ ɔman mma nyinaa mu. Nea ɛne eyi hyia no, ENF fii ase dii Wiase Nyinaa Hokwan a Ɛwɔ Nsu ho Da no na wɔhyɛɛ ho nkuran wɔ March 20, da a Oduruyɛfo Babasaheb Ambedkar ("nnɛyi India agya") dii wiase satyagraha a edi kan a ɛfa nsu ho anim wɔ afe 1927 mu no. Wiase Nyinaa Hokwan a Wɔwɔ sɛ Wonya Nsu Da no hwehwɛ sɛ wogye mmara titiriw bi a ɛde hokwan a amansan nyinaa wɔ sɛ wonya nsu no to hɔ. Wɔ nea ɔhyehyɛɛ no Dr Priyanand Agale akwankyerɛ ase no, ENF yɛ nhyehyɛe ahorow pii ho nhyehyɛe de hwɛ hu sɛ India manfo nya hokwan sɛ wonya nsu.[40]

New Zealand[sesa]

Wɔnmmɔ ESCR ho ban pefee wɔ New Zealand mprempren, sɛ́ ɛyɛ Nnipa Hokwan anaa Hokwan Ho Mmara ho Mmara, enti mmara mmɔ hokwan a wɔwɔ sɛ wonya nsu ho ban wɔ hɔ.[41] New Zealand Mmara Fekuw no akyerɛ nnansa yi sɛ ɔman yi besusuw mmara kwan so gyinabea a ɛfa sikasɛm, asetra ne amammerɛ mu hokwan ahorow ho no ho bio.[42]

United States[sesa]

Wɔ Pilchen v. City of Auburn, New York, na ɛna bi a onni ɔhokafo a wɔfrɛ no Diane Pilchen te ofie bi a wɔagye afi ne nsam sɛ obi a wagye dan, a na ofie no wura (ofie wura) no antumi antua nsu ho ka bere tenten bi. Auburn Kuropɔn no bɔɔ Pilchen ka wɔ ofie wura no aka ho, na wɔtoo ne nsu ho adwuma no mu mpɛn pii a wɔmmɔ no amanneɛ bere a wantumi antua ɛka ahorow yi, na ɛmaa ofie no yɛɛ nea wontumi ntena mu. Kurow no kasa tiaa ofie no na wɔhyɛɛ Pilchen ne ne ba no ma wotu fii hɔ. Public Utility Law Project of New York (PULP) na egyinaa Pilchen ananmu wɔ asɛm no mu. Auburn Kuropɔn no bɔɔ mmɔden sɛ wɔbɛka sɛ nsu nyɛ hokwan a ɛwɔ mmara mu efisɛ wobetumi de nsu a wɔde ahyɛ toa mu adi dwuma mmom, asɛm a PULP gyee akyinnye sɛ ntease nnim. Wɔ afe 2010 mu no, Pilchen dii nkonim wɔ atemmuo tiawa mu a wɔsii gyinaeɛ sɛ nsuo a wɔto mu no bu ne hokwan a ɛwɔ mmara mu, na wɔantumi antua Pilchen ka na wɔannyae nsuo a ɛnni esiane sɛ ɔfa bi a ɔne no nni abusuabɔ akyɛ wɔ nsuo ho ka mu nti.

Standing Rock Sioux Abusuakuw no v. United States Asraafo Mfiridwumayɛfo Kuw[sesa]

Nkurɔfo a wɔreyɛ ɔsɔretia tia Dakota Access Pipeline a wɔresi no

Wɔ afe 2016 mu no, asɛm bi a agye din wɔ hɔ a wɔfrɛ no Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. United States Asraafo Mfiridwumayɛfo Kuw (Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. United States Army Corps of Engineers), faako a Sioux Abusuakuw no kasa tiaa Dakota Access Pipeline (Dakota Access Pipeline - DAPL) a wobesi no. Saa ngo a wɔmfa nhyehyɛ mu yi fa amantam anan so, a nea ɛka ho ne mfiase wɔ North Dakota, afei ɛfa South Dakota ne Iowa nyinaa, na ɛba awiei wɔ Illinois no bɛn North ne South Dakota hye so na wɔasi nsuo afiri no wɔ akwansin fa mu. Esiane sɛ wosii nsu afiri no wɔ baabi a ɛbɛn baabi a wɔakora so nti, na abusuakuw no suro sɛ wɔbɛsakra abakɔsɛm ne amammerɛ mu ntease a ɛwɔ Ɔtare Oahe no mu, ɛwom mpo sɛ nsu afiri no mfa ɔtare no mu tẽẽ de. Ɔtare Oahe ma nsuo a ɛho hia titire ma Sioux Abusuakuo no te sɛ nsuo a wɔnom ne ahotew. Petrol afiri a wɔasi no kyerɛ sɛ asiane kɛse wɔ hɔ sɛ ngo bɛhwie agu Ɔtare Oahe mu, na ɛno maa abusuakuw no haw wɔn ho.[43] Sioux Abusuakuw no de DAPL adwumakuw no kɔɔ asɛnnibea efisɛ na wogye di sɛ nsu afiri no a wɔyɛe no bu Ɔman Atwa Yɛn Ho Ahyia Ho Mmara (National Environmental Policy Act) ne Ɔman Abakɔsɛm a Wɔkora So Mmara so (National Historic Preservation Act). Wɔ afe 2016 amanneɛbɔ no akyi no, asɛnnibea no antumi anwie, enti asɛnnibea no sii gyinae sɛ wɔbɛyɛ nsɛm foforo.[43] Wɔ nsɛm 5 akyi wɔ afe 2017 mu ne nsɛm 1 wɔ afe 2018 mu no, asɛnnibea no ama kwan sɛ wɔnsi nsuo afiri no, nanso Standing Rock abusuakuo no kɔ so ko sɛ wɔbɛhwɛ sɛ wɔayi nsuo afiri no afiri hɔ.

Australia[sesa]

Wɔde adwene asi hokwan a Australiafo Abibifo (Indigenous Australians) wɔ wɔ nsu ne ahotew ho no so wɔ Australia. Abakɔsɛm a ɛfa atubrafo-atubrafo ho (History of settler-colonialism) no kata nnɛyi ɔman nniso a ɛhwɛ nsu a Australiafo a wɔyɛ aborɔfo de di dwuma so no so. Aban apam pii wɔ hɔ, nanso emu dodow no ara nwie pɛyɛ sɛ ebetumi anya tumi a ɛwɔ hokwan a ɛhɔfo wɔ sɛ wonya nsu ne ahotew so nkɛntɛnso koraa. Wɔ afe 1992 mu no, wogyee hokwan ahorow a Abibifo wɔ toom wɔ mmara kwan so nea edi kan. Australiafo a wɔyɛ aborɔfo taa ka sɛ amammerɛ mu abusuabɔ wɔ asase no so. Ɛwom sɛ wogyee "amammerɛ" toom wɔ asɛnnibea hɔ te sɛ asase so nneɛma de, nanso amammerɛ ne honhom fam mfaso a Aboriginefo wɔ ma nsu nipadua no yɛ nea wontumi nhu. Ɛyɛ den nanso na ehia sɛ ɛboro wɔn amammerɛ ne honhom fam gyinapɛn ahorow so kɔ mmara mu. Mprempren de, ɛkame ayɛ sɛ nkɔso biara nni hɔ.

Australia nsu ho mmara kyerɛ nsu a ɛwɔ soro titiriw ma ɔman mma a wobetumi de nsu a ɛwɔ soro adi dwuma nanso wontumi nyɛ wɔn de. Nanso, wɔ ɔman mmara no mu no, wɔanka nsu a ɛwɔ asase mu ne nsu a ɛwɔ asubɔnten ho no ho asɛm biara. Enti, nsuo hokwan a ɛwɔ asase mu/asubɔnten ho no ne ɔman no ahyɛdeɛ titire. Commonwealth Aban no (Commonwealth Government) nya tumi wɔ nsuo so denam mmoa a ɛfiri abɔnten abusuabɔ mu a wɔfɛm, a Grants Power, Trade and Commerce Power ka ho.

Wɔ afe 2000 mu no, Ɔman Asɛnnibea no yɛɛ apam a ɛmaa asase wuranom a wɔyɛ aborɔfo kwan sɛ wɔbɛfa nsu de ayɛ amanne kwan so atirimpɔw ahorow no. Nanso, wɔde di dwuma wɔ atetesɛm mu atirimpɔw nkutoo mu, a na ɛnyɛ nsu a wɔde gugu nnɔbae so sɛ atetesɛm mu adeyɛ.

Wɔ bosome Kitawonsa afe 2004 mu no, CoAC yɛɛ aban ntam apam bi a ɛfa Ɔman Nsuo Dwumadie (National Water Initiative - NWI) ho, a ɛhyɛɛ nkuran sɛ wɔgye hokwan a ɛhɔfoɔ wɔ sɛ wɔnya nsuo tom. Nanso, NWI mfa abakɔsɛm a ɛyɛ den a ɛfa atubrafo-atubrafo ho, a ɛde nhyehyɛe a ɛde nsu kyekyɛ a ɛnyɛ pɛ aba no ho kɛse. Aborɔfo a wɔwɔ Australia rehwehwɛ hokwan a wɔwɔ sɛ wonya nsu bere nyinaa.

Nkɔmmɔbɔ a aka (Remaining discussions)[sesa]

Nsunsuanso a ɛba wɔ ɔhye so (Transboundary effects)[sesa]

Ethiopia adeyɛ a ɛbɛhyɛ Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam ’s reservoir no ma no betumi atew Nile nsu a ɛsen no so bɛyɛ 25% na asɛe Egypt mfuw nsase.
Bere a Russia faa Crimea akyi no, Ukraine siw North Crimean Canal, a ɛmaa Crimea nsu pa 85% no kwan.

Esiane nokwasɛm a ɛyɛ sɛ nsu a wobenya no yɛ ade a ɛhaw adwene wɔ ahye so na ntawntawdi a ebetumi aba wɔ Mfinimfini Apuei (Middle East), Asia Kesee Fam (South Asia), Mediterranea Apuei fam (Mediterranean) ne Amerika Atifi fam (North America) mmeae bi ne mmeae afoforo nti, ahyehyɛde ahorow bi a ɛnyɛ aban de (NGOs) ne nhomanimfo ka sɛ hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya nsu nso wɔ ɔfa a ɛfa ɔman no ntam anaa nea ɛwɔ asasesin akyi. Wɔkyerɛ sɛ esiane nokwasɛm a ɛyɛ sɛ nsu a wɔde ma no fi awosu mu ka bom na ɛtwam ahye nti, aman nso wɔ mmara kwan so asɛyɛde sɛ wɔrenyɛ ade wɔ ɔkwan a ebetumi anya nkɛntɛnso bɔne wɔ nnipa hokwan ahorow a wobenya wɔ aman afoforo mu no so. Mmara kwan so asɛyɛde yi a wobegye atom wɔ ɔkwan a ɛfata so no betumi asiw wiase nyinaa "nsu a ɛreyɛ ayɛ mmerɛw" no nkɛntɛnso bɔne ano (sɛ daakye asiane ne ade bɔne biako a efi nnipa dodow a ɛboro so mu ba (over-population).[20] Nsu a ɛho yɛ na ne nsu pa a wɔde di dwuma kɛse no ma hokwan yi yɛ den ma ɛyɛ nwonwa. Bere a wiase nnipa dodow redɔɔso ntɛmntɛm no, nsu pa a ɛho yɛ na no de ɔhaw pii bɛba. Nsu dodow a ɛho yɛ na no de asɛmmisa a ɛne sɛ ebia ɛsɛ sɛ wɔde nsu fi ɔman biako mu kɔ ɔman foforo mu anaasɛ ɛnsɛ sɛ woyi no ba.[44]

Nsu Ho Akyinnyegye a Ɛda India ne Pakistan Ntam (Water Dispute Between India and Pakistan)[sesa]

Nsu ho akasakasa a ɛda India ne Pakistan ntam no fi nsu a ɛho yɛ na wɔ Asia Kesee Fam mantam mu no so nkɛntɛnso. Aman abien no wɔ apam bi a wɔadi kan ayɛ a wɔfrɛ no Indus Nsu Apam (Indus Waters Treaty). Wɔhyehyɛɛ apam no sɛ wɔde besiw ntawntawdi a ɛda India ne Pakistan ntam a ɛfa Indus asubɔnten no a wɔde bedi dwuma ho no ano na wɔakyekyɛ nsu ama aman abien no nyinaa bere a aman no nyaa ahofadi akyi. Nanso, adwene a enhyia wɔ ho ada adi. Sɛnea apam no kyerɛ no, wɔma India kwan sɛ ɔde asubɔnten no atɔe fam no di dwuma de gugu nnɔbae ne nneɛma a ɛnyɛ nea wɔde di dwuma, bere a Pakistan na ɛwɔ asubɔnten no so tumi kɛse. Nanso, Pakistan aka ne haw sɛ ebia adan a India resi wɔ nsubɔnten no so no bɛma nsu ho ayɛ na kɛse wɔ Pakistan.[45] Bio nso, Pakistan de nne kae sɛ ebia wɔde atare a India asi sɛ wɔmfa nni dwuma no bedi dwuma de adan nsu a ɛsen no na wɔasɛe Pakistan nsu a wɔde ma no. Nea ɛka ho no, apam no fa nsubɔnten a efi Jammu ne Kashmir, a wɔayi afi wɔn ankasa nsu a ɛwɔ hɔ no so tumi ho.[45]

Nsuo a wɔde di gua ne ɔman no nsiesie (Water commercialization versus state provision)[sesa]

Akyinnyegye wɔ hɔ wɔ hena, sɛ obi wɔ a, ɛyɛ n’asɛyɛde sɛ ɔbɛhwɛ ma nnipa anya hokwan a wɔwɔ sɛ wonya nsu ne ahotew ho. Mpɛn pii no, nsusuwii sukuu abien fi ɔkasa a ɛte saa mu ba: ɛyɛ ɔman no asɛyɛde sɛ ɛbɛma nkurɔfo anya nsu pa a ɛne sɛ wɔde nsu a wɔkyekyɛ ne ahotew bɛhyɛ ankorankoro nsa.

Wɔde nsu a wɔde di gua no ma sɛ nea wɔde bua nsu a ɛho yɛ na a ɛkɔ soro a ɛde aba esiane wiase nnipa dodow a abu abɔ ho mprɛnsa bere a nsu a wɔhwehwɛ no akɔ soro mmɔho asia nti. Guadidan mu nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia ho adwuma de gua ahorow di dwuma sɛ nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia ho haw ahorow te sɛ nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia a wɔsɛe no (environmental degradation) ne nneɛma a wɔmfa nni dwuma yiye no ano aduru. Wɔn a wɔtaa gua so nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia (environmentalism) so gye di sɛ ankorankoro nnwumakuw a wɔhwɛ nsu so sɛ sikasɛm mu ade no bɛyɛ nea etu mpɔn sen aban ahorow a wɔde nsu ho nneɛma ma wɔn manfo . Wɔn a wɔkamfo kyerɛ a wɔte saa no ka sɛ ɛka a aban no bɔ wɔ nneɛma a wɔde bɛyɛ nsu ho nneɛma a wɔbɛkyekyɛ ho no mfata mfaso kakraa bi a ɛwɔ nsu a wɔde ma so no, na enti wobu ɔman no sɛ ɛyɛ nsu a wɔde ma a entu mpɔn. Bio nso, wɔkyerɛ sɛ nsuo a wɔde yɛ aguadeɛ no ma wonya nsuo a wɔde di dwuma yie ɛnam sikasɛm mu nkannyan a ɛma adetɔfoɔ de nsuo di dwuma yie nti.

Wɔn a wɔsɔre tia no gye di sɛ nea efi nsu a ɛyɛ hokwan a nnipa wɔ mu ba no mfa ankorankoro nnwuma a wɔde wɔn ho bɛhyɛ mu no nka ho na ɛhwehwɛ sɛ wɔde nsu ma nnipa nyinaa efisɛ ɛho hia ma nkwa. Nsuo a wobenya sɛ nnipa hokwan no, NGO ahorow bi de di dwuma sɛ ɔkwan a wɔfa so ko tia mmɔden a wɔbɔ sɛ wɔde bɛhyɛ ankorankoro nsa. Hokwan a onipa wɔ sɛ onya nsu "taa gyina ntease abien so: nsu a wɔnom a wontumi mfa nsi ananmu ("ɛho hia ma nkwa"), ne nokwasɛm a ɛyɛ sɛ nnipa hokwan afoforo pii a wogye tom pefee wɔ UN Apam ahorow no mu no gyina (wɔfa no sɛ) . nsu a ɛwɔ hɔ (sɛ nhwɛso no (eg.), hokwan a obi wɔ sɛ onya aduan - right to food)." [46]

Ahyehyɛde ahorow (Organizations)[sesa]

Wɔabobɔ ahyehyɛde ahorow a wɔyɛ adwuma wɔ hokwan ahorow a wɔwɔ wɔ nsu ne ahotew ho no din wɔ ase ha.

Amanaman Nkabom ahyehyɛde ahorow (United Nations organizations)[sesa]

Aban adwumayɛkuw ahorow a wɔyɛ biako (Governmental cooperation agencies)[sesa]

  • DFID (Ahemman Nkabom Dwumadibea - DFID (United Kingdom's Cooperation Agency).
  • GIZ (German Adwumakuw a Ɛhwɛ Amanaman Ntam Nkitahodi So - GIZ (German Corporation for International Cooperation) .
  • SDC (Swiss Asoɛe a Ɛhwɛ Nkɔso ne Nkɔmmɔbɔ So - SDC (Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation)
  • EPA (United States Asoɛe a Ɛhwɛ Nneɛma a Atwa Yɛn Ho Ahyia So - EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency)

Amanaman ntam ahyehyɛde ahorow a ɛnyɛ aban de ne nkitahodi ahorow (International non-governmental organizations and networks)[sesa]

  • Adeyɛ a Wɔde Ko Tia Ɔkɔm (Action against Hunger - ACF).
  • Mogya:Nsu (Blood:Water)
  • Asoɛe a Ɛhwɛ Nsu Ho Ahobammɔ ne Nkɔmmɔbɔ So (Center for Water Security and Cooperation)
  • Nsuo Pa Dwumadie Nkitahodiɛ (Freshwater Action Network FAN)
  • Nsu a Ɛho Tew Ma Wiase (Pure Water for the World)
  • DigDeep Hokwan a Wɔde Ma Nsu Dwumadi (The DigDeep Right to Water Project)
  • Pacific Asoɛe no (The Pacific Institute)
  • Nsuo Dwumadie (The Water Project)
  • Amanaman Ntam Asoɛe a ɛne Nsu Atɛntrenee adwuma no
  • UUSC (Transnational Institute with the Water Justice project)
  • NsuoMmoa (WaterAid)
  • WaterLex (ɛnyɛ adwuma bio de besi afe 2020 - ex (defunct as of 2020))
  • AsomdwoeJam (PeaceJam)

Hwɛ eyi nso[sesa]

  • Nneɛma a Atwa Yɛn Ho Ahyia Mmara (Environmental Law)
  • Asase ho adwene (Georgism)
  • Nnipa hokwan ho mmara (Human rights law)
  • Asase mu nsu (Hydrosphere)
  • Berɛ. Kasasin no Awiei. (Period. End of Sentence.)
  • Awo ntoatoaso abiɛsa a nnipa hokwan ahorow wɔ (Three generations of human rights)
  • WASH - Nsuo (Water), ahotew (sanitation) ne eduane ho ahotew (hygiene)
  • Nsuo mu ntawntawdi (Water conflict)
  • Nsu ho mmara (Water law)
  • Nsuo a ɛfata (Water right)
  • Nsuo mu atɛntrenee (Water justice)
  • Nsuo mu ahobanbɔ (Water security)
  • Wiase Nyinaa Nsu Da (World Water Day)
  • Hokwan a adwumayɛfo wɔ sɛ wɔkɔ tiafi (Workers' right to access the toilet)

Nsɛm a wɔde gyinaa so[sesa]

  1. ↑ Baer, M. 2015. From Water Wars to Water Rights: Implementing the Human Right to Water in Bolivia, Journal of Human Rights, 14:3, 353-376, DOI:10.1080/14754835.2014.988782
  2. ↑ UN (United Nations). 2010. Resolution adopted by the general assembly. 64/292. The human right to water and sanitation. A/RES/64/292. New York: United Nations.
  3. ↑ UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 1997. Governance for Sustainable Human Development: A UNDP Policy Document. UNDP, New York, NY, USA. See http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/policy/ (accessed 21/06/2012)
  4. ↑ World Health Organisation (WHO) and United Nation Children's Fund (UNICEF). 2011. Drinking water: Equity, Satefy and sustainability. New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water and Sanitation.
  5. ↑ World Health Organisation (WHO) and United Nation Children's Fund (UNICEF). 2012. Progress on drinking water and sanitation. 2012 update. New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Mfomsoɔ wɔ beaɛ hɔ:Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :4
  7. ↑ Mfomsoɔ wɔ beaɛ hɔ:Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :1
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 General Assembly Declares Access to Clean Water and Sanitation Is a Human Right." UN News Center. 28 July 2010. Accessed 20 March 2014.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Global Issues at the United Nations." UN News Center. n.d. Accessed 20 March 2014.
  10. ↑ Gupta, J., Ahlers, R., and Ahmed, L. 2010. The human right to water: Moving towards consensus in a fragmented world. Review of European Community and International Environmental Law, 19(3), 294–305
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 [1], McCaffrey, S.C. "A Human Right to Water: Domestic and International Implications" (1992) V Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, Issue 1, pp.1-24.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 [2], Gleick, P.H. "The Human Right to Water" (1999) Water Policy, Vol. 1, Issue 5, pp. 487-503.
  13. ↑ Mfomsoɔ wɔ beaɛ hɔ:Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :0
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay (Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 29 March 2006).
  15. ↑ [3], International Network for Economic, Social & Cultural RIghts, Case of Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay.
  16. ↑ [4], Global Public Interest in International Investment Law, Andreas Kulick, 2012 at 303.
  17. ↑ Azurix Corp v. Argentina, ICSID Case No ARB/01/12.
  18. ↑ [5], Azurix Corp v Argentina ICSID Case No ARB/01/12 at 149.
  19. ↑ Biwater Gauff (Tanzania) Ltd v. Tanzania, ICSID Case No ARB/05/22.
  20. ↑ [6], Business & Human RIghts Resource Centre, Biwater-Tanzania arbitration.
  21. ↑ [7], McGraw, George S. "Defining and Defending the Right to Water and its Minimum Core: Legal Construction and the Role of National Jurisprudence" Loyola University Chicago International Law Review Vol. 8, No. 2, 127-204 (2011) at 137.
  22. ↑ [8], Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard "Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground" [2013] NZLJ 289 at 297
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 [9], Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard "Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground" [2013] NZLJ 289 at 298
  24. ↑ Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council, High Court of South Africa, Case No. 01/12312.
  25. ↑ [10], South African Constitution, Section 27(1)(a).
  26. ↑ [11], Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment 12, Right to adequate food (Twentieth session, 1999), U.N. Doc. E/C.12/1999/5 (1999), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6 at 62 (2003).
  27. ↑ [12], South African Water Services Act [No. 108 of 1997] Section 4 (3)
  28. ↑ [13], UN General Comment No. 15
  29. ↑ Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg, (06/13865) [2008] ZAGPHC 491;[2008] All SA 471 (W) (30 April 2008)
  30. ↑ [14], South African Water Services Act. [No. 108 of 1997] Section 11
  31. ↑ Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg, (06/13865) [2008] ZAGPHC 491;[2008] All SA 471 (W) (30 April 2008) at 181
  32. ↑ [15] Business Ethics Network
  33. ↑ [16], Pacific Institute "Pacific Institute Shares BENNY Award for Efforts in South African Water Rights Decision." (2008), Pacific Institute, Oakland, California
  34. ↑ South African National Standard 3(b) (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04, retrieved 2023-05-15
  35. ↑ [17], Mazibuko and Another v National Director of Public Prosecutions (113/08) [2009] ZASCA 52; 2009 (6) SA 479 (SCA) ; [2009] 3 All SA 548 (SCA) (26 May 2009)
  36. ↑ Mazibuko and Other v. City of Johannesburg and Others (CCt 39/09) [2009] ZACC 28; 2010 (3) BCLR 239 (CC) ; 2010 (4) SA 1 (CC) (8 October 2009)
  37. ↑ Alston & Goodman, International Human Rights, Oxford University Press (2013), Lucy A. Williams, "The Role of Courts In The Quantitative-Implementation of Social and Economic Rights: A Comparative Study", 3 Constitutional Court Review 2010 [South Africa] (2011) 141
  38. ↑ [18], Amy Hardberger "Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Water: Evaluating Water as a Human Right and the Duties and Obligations it Creates" (2005) 4 Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights 331 at 352
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Delhi Water Supply & Sewage v. State Of Haryana & Ors, 1999 SCC(2) 572, JT 1996 (6) 107
  40. ↑ econeeds.org
  41. ↑ Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard, "Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground", [2013] NZLJ 289 at 299
  42. ↑ [19], New Zealand Law Society Human Rights & Privacy Committee, Submission to the 18th Session of The Human Rights Council, Shadow Report to New Zealand's 2nd Universal Periodic Review
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Mfomsoɔ wɔ beaɛ hɔ:Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :02
  44. ↑ McCaffrey, Stephen C. "Human Right to Water: Domestic and International Implications, A." Geo. Int'l Envtl. L. Rev. 5 (1992): 1.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Mfomsoɔ wɔ beaɛ hɔ:Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :03
  46. ↑ Bakker, Karen. "The “Commons” Versus the “Commodity”: Alter‐globalization, Anti‐privatization and the Human Right to Water in the Global South". Antipode 39.3 (2007): 430-455.
Yɛ yi fii "https://tw.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hokwan_a_nnipa_wɔ_sɛ_wonya_nsu_ne_ahotew_(Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation)&oldid=177414"