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Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs)

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Abakɔsɛm mu no, Abibifo kɔlege ne suapɔn (HBCUs) yɛ ntoasoɔ sukuu wɔ nwomasua asoɛeɛ a ɛkorɔn wɔ United States a wɔhyehyɛɛ no ansa na Civil Rights Act of 1964 reba, a na atirimpɔ ne sɛ wɔbɛsom Abibifo Amerikafoɔ[1]. Wɔn mu dodoɔ no ara wɔ United States anafo fam, na wɔhyehyɛɛ wɔn wɔ Reconstruction bere (1865 - 1877) a edii Amerika Ɔmanko akyi no[2]. Na wɔn botae titiriw ne sɛ wɔde ntetee bɛma Afrika-Amerikafo wɔ bere a na kɔlege ne suapɔn bebree wɔ United States mma kwan sɛ wɔn a wɔyɛ abibifo bɛkɔ sukuupɔn no[3][4].

Berɛ a na wɔresan asi hɔ no, na Protestantfoɔ nyamesom ahyehyɛde ahorow na wɔhyehyɛɛ kɔlege ahorow a wɔyɛ Abibifo wɔ abakɔsɛm mu no. Eyi sakrae wɔ 1890 mu bere a U.S. Congress maa Morrill Mmara a Ɛto so Abien no baa mu, a na ɛhwehwɛ sɛ anafo fam aman a wɔtew wɔn ho no ma Afrikafoɔ Amerikafo sukuu a ɛwɔ ɔman no mu no ma wɔn a wɔwɔ hɔ no nya Mmara no so mfaso. Wɔ afeha a ɛto so 19 mu no, sɛ́ ebia wɔtrɛw wɔn mu a wɔyɛ Abibifo ne Amerikafo a wɔyɛ Abibifo no mu wɔ wɔn ahyehyɛde ahorow mu anaasɛ wonyaa ahyehyɛde a ɛsom nnipakuw kakraa bi no gyinabea no, wɔbɛyɛɛ asoɛeɛ ahodoɔ a wɔn mu dodoɔ no ara yɛ Abibifoɔ[5].

Wɔ afeha a edi kan wɔ Amerika nkoasom asefi akyi wɔ afe 1865 mu no, ɛkame ayɛ sɛ United States anafo fam sukuupɔn ne suapɔn ahorow nyinaa baraa Afrika Amerikafo nyinaa sɛ wɔnnkɔ sukuu sɛnea Jim Crow mmara hwehwɛ wɔ Anafo fam no, bere a sukuu ahorow a ɛwɔ ɔman no afa afoforo mu no taa de nnapɔnna di dwuma de ka wɔn a wɔyɛ Abibifo no ho asɛm no[6][7][8][9]. HBCU no de hokwan pii maa Afrika-Amerikafo, na wɔn na wɔhwɛ ma Afrika-Amerikafo abusuakuw no nya nkɔso[10][11]. Wɔ 1950 ne 1960 mfe no mu no, wɔbaraa nnipa mu nyiyim wɔ nhomasua mu wɔ South nyinaa (ne baabiara wɔ United States), na wɔhyɛɛ mmara foforɔ a ɛmma nnipa mu nyiyim ho.

HBCU 101 na ɛwɔ United States (fi sukuu 121 a na ɛwɔ hɔ wɔ 1930 mfe no mu)[1][12], a ɛkyerɛ sɛ sukuu no mu ɔha mu nkyɛm mmiɛnsa (3%) yɛ ɔman no mu kɔlegyi ahodoɔ[2][13], a aban ne ankorɛankorɛ sukuu ahorow ka ho[3][14]. 27 de doctoral adesua ma, 52 de master adesua ma, 83 de bachelor adesua ma, na 38 de associate adesua ma[5][15][16]. HBCUs mprempren yi wɔn a wɔawie sukuupɔn no nyinaa mu bɛyɛ ɔha mu nkyɛmu aduonu na wɔyɛ Afrikafo Amerikafo, na wɔn a wɔawie STEM adesua no mu ɔha mu nkyɛmu aduonu anum yɛ Afrikafo Amerikafo[17]. Wɔn a wɔawie HBCUs adesua no bi ne ɔmanfo kwan so akannifo Martin Luther King Jr., United States Asɛnnibea Kunini no mu ɔtemmufo Thurgood Marshall, Amerika sini kwankyerɛfoɔ Spike Lee, United States abadiakyiri Kamala Harris ne Amerikani nkontaabufoɔ Katherine Johnson.

Abakɔsɛm

[sesa]
Cheyney University of Pennsylvania was founded in 1837 as the Institute for Colored Youth, making it the oldest HBCU in the nation.

Ankorɛankorɛ nnwumakuo

[sesa]

HBCU a wɔhyehyɛɛ no ansa na Amerika Ɔmanko no reba no bi ne Cheyney University of Pennsylvania wɔ 1837[18], University of the District of Columbia (a na wɔfrɛ no Miner School for Colored Girls) wɔ 1851, ne Lincoln University wɔ 1854[19]. Wilberforce Sukuupɔn nso wɔ hɔ ansa na Amerika Ɔmanko no reba[20]. Wɔdii suapɔn no wɔ afe 1856 mu, a na African Methodist Episcopal Asɔre a ɛwɔ Ohio ne Methodist Episcopal Asɔre a na emufoɔ yɛ aborɔfo no ne wɔn boom yɛɛ adwuma[21].

HBCU no dii akasakasa wɔ wɔn mfe a edi kan mu. Wɔ 1847 National Convention of Colored People and Their Friends ase no, Abibifo akasafo a wɔagye din Frederick Douglass, Henry Highland Garnet, ne Alexander Crummell kaa hia a na ehia sɛ wɔhyehyɛ ahyehyɛde a ɛtete saa no ho asɛm, na Crummell kae sɛ HBCU ahorow no ho hia na ama wɔanya ahofadi afi nyiyim ho, na Douglass ne Garnet kae sɛ wɔn ankasa a wɔbɛtew wɔn ho no bɛhaw abibifo. Nhyiamu no mu dodow no ara gye toom sɛ ɛsɛ sɛ wɔboa HBCUs[22][23].

Wɔ Amerika Ɔmanko no akyi no, wɔhyehyɛɛ HBCU dodoɔ no ara wɔ Anafo fam, mpɛn pii no, na nyamesom mu asɛmpatrɛw ahyehyɛde ahorow a ɛwɔ Atifi fam, titire Amerika Asɛmpatrɛ Fekuo no boa wɔn. Freedmen's Bureau no dii dwuma kɛseɛ wɔ sika a wɔde maa sukuufoɔ no mu[24][25].

Atlanta Suapɔn - seesei wɔfrɛ no Clark Atlanta Suapɔn  - wɔ Ɛbɔ bosome mu da ɛtɔ so 19 wɔ afe 1865 na wɔhyehyɛɛ no sɛ HBCU a edi kan wɔ United States Anafoɔ fam. Atlanta Sukuupɔn no ne sukuupɔn a edi kan a wodii kan nyaa adansedie (biako a wɔtwitwa no tiawa sɛ grad school) [26] a wodii kan maa Afrika-Amerikafoɔ nyaa adansedie wɔ ɔman no mu, na wɔn a wodii kan maa Afrika-Amerikafoɔ nyaa adansedie wɔ Anafoɔ fam no; Clark Sukuupɔn (1869) no ne ɔman no mu sukuupɔn a edi kan a wodii mfe anan a na wɔtete Afrika-Amerikafoɔ. Wɔn mmienu no boom yɛɛ Clark Atlanta Sukuupɔn no wɔ afe 1988 mu[27]. Shaw Suapɔn no a wɔtew no Ɔpɛnimaa bosome da 1 wɔ afe 1865 no ne HBCU a ɛtɔ so mmienu a wɔte no wɔ South. Wɔ 1865 mu no, wɔtew Storer College (1865 - 1955) wɔ Harper's Ferry, West Virginia. Efi saa bere no, wɔakyekyere Storer sukuu no ne adan no nyinaa aka Harpers Ferry National Historical Park ho[28].

Saa suapɔn ahodoɔ yi mu bi bɛyɛɛ aban suapɔn a aban no boa wɔn[29].

Aban nnwuma

[sesa]

Wɔ afe 1862 mu no[30], aban no de Morrill Mmara no maa kwan ma wɔyɛɛ sukuu ahorow wɔ ɔmantam biara mu. Nhomasua sukuu ahorow a wɔhyehyɛe wɔ Morrill Mmara no ase wɔ Atifi fam ne Atɔe fam no abue ama Amerikafo a wɔyɛ abibifo. Nanso, aman 17, a ɛkame ayɛ sɛ na wɔn nyinaa wɔ Anafo fam no, kae sɛ wɔmfa wɔn amammuisɛm a wɔde mae wɔ Ɔmanko no akyi no nsonsono wɔn mu na wɔmma abibifo sukuufo no kwan mma wɔnkɔ wɔn sukuu ahorow a wɔde asase ma wɔn no mu. Wɔ 1870 mfe no mu no, Mississippi, Virginia, ne South Carolina maa Afrika Amerikafo sukuupɔn biako asase-ntua gyinabea: Alcorn Sukuupɔn, Hampton Sukuupɔn, ne Claflin Suaɔn, sɛso biara[31]. Bere a wɔrebua no, Congress maa Morrill Mmara a ɛtɔ so mmienu a wɔtoo no wɔ afe 1890, a wɔsan frɛ no Agricultural College Act a wɔtoo no 1890, a na ɛhwehwɛ sɛ aman no yɛ sukuu a wɔde asase ma ma wɔn a wɔyɛ abibifo a sɛ wɔayi wɔn afi sukuu a wɔde asase ma wɔn a wɔyɛ abibifo no mu a, ɛsɛ sɛ wɔtew sukuu a wɔde asase ma wɔn a wɔyɛ abibifoɔ. Ɔman no de HBCU no pii sii hɔ de maa Morrill Mmara a Ɛto so Mmienu no[31]. Asase a wɔde ma sukuu yi kɔ so nya sika fi aban no hɔ afe biara ma wɔn nhwehwɛmu ne wɔn dwumadie[16].

Tebea a ɛwɔ hɔ nnɛ

[sesa]
North Carolina A&T State University is the nation's largest HBCU by enrollment.

Afe biara, U.S. Nwomasua Asoɛeɛ no frɛ dapɛn bi wɔ otwabere mu sɛ "Ɔman HBCU Dapɛn". Nnawɔtwe yi mu no, yɛdi nhyiamu ne dwumadi ahorow a ɛfa HBCUs ho, na yɛdi wɔn a wɔagye din wɔ nhomasua mu ne wɔn a wɔawie wɔn adesua wɔ saa sukuu yi mu no ni[32].

As of February 2025, Alabama wɔ HBCUs a ɛboro so wɔ ɔman biara mu, wɔ 14[33]. North Carolina ne nea ɔto so abien a ɔwɔ 11[34].

Wɔ Ɔgyefoɔ bosome wɔ afe 2025 mu no, Howard Suapɔn no bɛyɛɛ HBCU a ɛdi kan a ɛdii Carnegie Nhyehyɛeɛ a wɔfa so yɛ nhwehwɛmu (R1) no so[35].

Wɔ afe 2024 mu no, HBCU ahorow bi nyaa nkɔanim kɛse wɔ nsrahwɛ ne wɔn a wɔde wɔn kɔɔ sukuu no mu, a nea ɛkaa ho titiriw ne asɛnnibea no gyinaesi a ɛsii wɔ June 2023 mu a ɛkaa sɛ wɔmmfa mmusuakuw nni dwuma wɔ Amerika suapɔn mu no[36][37].

Adesua bi a American Institute for Boys and Men yɛɛ wɔ afe 2024 mu no daa no adi sɛ, HBCU sukuufo no mu ɔha mu nkyem 26 pɛ na wɔyɛ Abibifo, na na wɔn dodow si ɔha mu nkyem 38 wɔ afe 1976. Black mmarima a wɔrekyerɛw wɔn ho ase wɔ sukuupɔn mu no nso redɔɔso wɔ sukuupɔn a wɔnnyɛ HBCU no mu[38].

Wɔ afe 2024 mu no, United Negro College Fund yii nhwehwɛmu bi adi a ɛkyerɛ sɛ HBCUs nyaa mfasoɔ $16.5 billion wɔ ɔman no sikasɛm mu[39].

Wɔ afe 2023 mu no, HBCU mfe nsia ntoaso sukuufo a wɔawie sukuu no dodow yɛ 35% na ɔman no mu no na wɔn dodow yɛ 64%. Spelman College ne HBCU a na ɛboro ɔman no mu mpem aduasa anan (74%). Wɔ afe 2023 mu nso, sukuufo a wɔkɔɔ HBCU no mu 73% na wɔfata maa Pell Grant berɛ a na ɔman no mu dodow yɛ 34% no[40][41]. Talladega College nyaa Pell Grant sukuufoɔ a wɔfata paa wɔ HBCUs mu wɔ 95%[42].

Wɔ afe 2020 ne 2021 ntam no, ɔyamyefo MacKenzie Scott de $560 million maa aban ne ankorɛankorɛ HBCUs 23, na ne ntoboa no mu dodow no ara na wɔde yɛɛ ntoboa ho twerɛtohɔ wɔ ahyehyɛde ahorow a ɔboaa wɔn no[43].

HBCU a wɔsan ba fie

[sesa]

Homecoming yɛ amammerɛ wɔ Amerika kɔlege ne suapɔn biara mu, nanso homecoming wɔ ntease soronko wɔ HBCUs mu. Homecoming di dwuma titiriw wɔ HBCU amammerɛ ne wɔn su mu. Nhyehyɛe a wɔyɛ ma wɔn a wɔyɛ abibifo a wɔwɔ mpɔtam hɔ no de wɔn ho hyɛ mu (sɛnea wɔfa wɔn ho hyɛ agodie mu, wɔn a wɔtɔn nneɛma, ne nea ɛkeka ho) no boa ma HBCU nkurɔfo a wɔsan ba fie no yɛ soronko. Esiane sɛ nnipa dɔɔso wɔ sukuu no mu nti, wɔtaa twa sukuu no mu dwumadi ahorow so wɔ Fida ne Memeneda a wɔsan ba fie no[44]. Afe biara, alumni, sukuufoɔ, nnipa atitire, ne ahɔhoɔ ɔpepem pii ba HBCU fie. Sɛ́ anka ɛbɛyɛ amanneɛ ne afahyɛ dapɛn a wɔhwɛ so yie no, adan a wɔsan ba fie no ma wɔn a wɔyɛ abibifoɔ nnwuma ne HBCU nya sika pii. Ɛfiri afe 2021 no, basabasayɛ a ɛrekɔ so wɔ HBCU fie a wɔsan ba no mu no abɛyɛ asɛm a ɛhaw adwene.[45][46][47]

Mmeaeɛ a menyaa mmoa firiiɛ

[sesa]
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 W. Barthel, F. Markwardt (1975-10-15), "Aggregation of blood platelets by adrenaline and its uptake", Biochemical Pharmacology, vol. 24, no. 20, pp. 1903–1904, doi:10.1016/0006-2952(75)90415-3, ISSN 0006-2952, PMID 20, retrieved 2025-06-22
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Richard Paul Fuke (1989-10-01), "James D. Anderson. The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935. Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press, 1988. xiv,366 pp..", Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation, pp. 344–346, doi:10.32316/hse/rhe.v1i2.1238, ISSN 1911-9674, retrieved 2025-06-22 {{citation}}: horizontal tab character in |title= at position 58 (help)
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Marybeth Gasman, Christopher L. Tudico (2008), "Introduction", Historically Black Colleges and Universities, New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, pp. 1–11, ISBN 978-1-349-37103-7, retrieved 2025-06-22
  4. ↑ Melissa E. Wooten (2015), In the face of inequality: how Black colleges adapt, Albany, NY: SUNY Press, ISBN 978-1-4384-5690-4 {{citation}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Marybeth Gasman, Brandy Jones, Ndeh ‘Will’ Anyu (2019), "Engagement, Innovation, and Advocacy: Presidential Leadership at Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Hispanic-Serving Institutions", Examining Effective Practices at Minority-Serving Institutions, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 63–74, ISBN 978-3-030-16608-3, retrieved 2025-06-22{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ "The "Faculty Republic"", The Long March of French Universities, Routledge, pp. 31–38, 2013-02-01, ISBN 978-0-203-46388-8, retrieved 2025-06-22
  7. ↑ Linda M. Perkins (2010-11), "Marybeth Gasman, Envisioning Black Colleges: A History of the United Negro College Fund. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007. Hardback $45.00.", History of Education Quarterly, vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 559–561, doi:10.1111/j.1748-5959.2010.00299.x, ISSN 0018-2680, retrieved 2025-06-22 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ↑ Marybeth Gasman, Felecia Commodore, ed. (2014), Opportunities and Challenges at Historically Black Colleges and Universities, doi:10.1057/9781137480415, retrieved 2025-06-22
  9. ↑ Jelani Manu-Gowon Favors (2019), Shelter in a time of storm: how black colleges fostered student activism, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 978-1-4696-4833-0 {{citation}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  10. ↑ K. T. EWING (2024-10-11), "AND SOME OF US ARE QUEER:", Embracing Queer Students’ Diverse Identities at Historically Black Colleges and Universities, Rutgers University Press, pp. 15–31, ISBN 978-1-9788-1612-1, retrieved 2025-06-22
  11. ↑ "Black Enterprise's Ranking of the Best Colleges for African Americans", The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, no. 30, p. 54, 2000, doi:10.2307/2679086, ISSN 1077-3711, retrieved 2025-06-22
  12. ↑ Wanda K. W. Ebright (2019), "History of Historically Black Colleges and Universities", Dance on the Historically Black College Campus, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 17–49, ISBN 978-3-030-32443-8, retrieved 2025-06-22
  13. ↑ Gregory N. Price (2017-07-12), "Would Increased National Science Foundation Research Support to Economists at Historically Black Colleges and Universities Increase Their Research Productivity?", Historically Black Colleges and Universities, Routledge, pp. 85–108, ISBN 978-0-203-79002-1, retrieved 2025-06-22
  14. ↑ "United Negro College Fund (UNCF)", Encyclopedia of African American Education, 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2010, ISBN 978-1-4129-4050-4, retrieved 2025-06-22{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  15. ↑ Crystal Renée Sanders (2009-02-09), "Historically Black Colleges and Universities", African American Studies Center, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-530173-1, retrieved 2025-06-22
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Marybeth Gasman, Andrés Castro Samayoa, William Casey Boland, Paola “Lola” Esmieu, ed. (2017-12-06), Educational Challenges at Minority Serving Institutions, doi:10.4324/9780203701980, retrieved 2025-06-22{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  17. ↑ Mohamed Chouikha, Kenneth Connor, Dianna Newman, Experimental Centered Pedagogy Approach to Learning in Engineering: An HBCU's Experience, ASEE Conferences, doi:10.18260/p.26828, retrieved 2025-06-22{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ↑ Dreck Spurlock Wilson (2019-02-01), "Institute for Colored Youth", Julian Abele, New York: Routledge, 2019. | Series: Minorities in: Routledge, pp. 9–17, ISBN 978-1-351-02166-1, retrieved 2025-06-22{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  19. ↑ Anne Hyde (2013-10-01), "Sight Unseen: How Frémont's First Expedition Changed the American Landscape. By Andrew Menard. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2012. xxix + 249 pp. Illustrations, maps, notes, and index. Cloth $29.95.", Environmental History, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 824–826, doi:10.1093/envhis/emt084, ISSN 1084-5453, retrieved 2025-06-22
  20. ↑ James W. Ivy, Frederick A. McGinnis (1942-10), "A History and an Interpretation of Wilberforce University.", The Journal of Negro Education, vol. 11, no. 4, p. 541, doi:10.2307/2292702, ISSN 0022-2984, retrieved 2025-06-22 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ↑ Marybeth Gasman, ed. (2010), Envisioning black colleges: a history of the United Negro College Fund, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-8604-1 {{citation}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  22. ↑ Proceedings of the National Convention of Colored People and Their Friends; held in Troy, NY; on the 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th of October, 1847 · Colored Conventions Project Digital Records, retrieved 2025-06-22
  23. ↑ "1847 National Convention of Colored People and Their Friends", Wikipedia (in English), 2021-12-07, retrieved 2025-06-22
  24. ↑ Robert C. Lieberman (1994), "The Freedmen's Bureau and the Politics of Institutional Structure", Social Science History, vol. 18, no. 3, p. 405, doi:10.2307/1171498, ISSN 0145-5532, retrieved 2025-06-22
  25. ↑ Ronald E. Butchart (1980), Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, and Reconstruction, doi:10.5040/9798400692109, retrieved 2025-06-22
  26. ↑ Graduate School Definition and Meaning (in American English), retrieved 2025-06-22
  27. ↑ Karen Juanita Carrillo (2012), African American history day by day: a reference guide to events, Santa Barbara, Calif: Greenwood, ISBN 978-1-59884-361-3 {{citation}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  28. ↑ Memorandum, Maestrone to The Secretary, Excerpt from December 18 STAFF RECORD, December 18, 1956, Secret., retrieved 2025-06-22
  29. ↑ Ivory A. Toldson (2016), "The Funding Gap between Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Traditionally White Institutions Needs to be Addressed* (Editor's Commentary)", The Journal of Negro Education, vol. 85, no. 2, p. 97, doi:10.7709/jnegroeducation.85.2.0097, retrieved 2025-06-22
  30. ↑ "CAPP-Seq: an ultrasensitive quantitative assay of ctDNA", Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology, vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 301–301, 2014-04-29, doi:10.1038/nrclinonc.2014.79, ISSN 1759-4774, retrieved 2025-06-22
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 John W. Davis (1933-07), "The Negro Land-Grant College", The Journal of Negro Education, vol. 2, no. 3, p. 312, doi:10.2307/2292202, ISSN 0022-2984, retrieved 2025-06-22 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  32. ↑ 2015 HBCU Week Conference | White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities (in American English), retrieved 2025-06-22
  33. ↑ Staff (2022-10-13), Gov. Kay Ivey signs proclamation declaring October Alabama HBCU Month (in American English), retrieved 2025-06-22
  34. ↑ A look Historically Black Colleges and Universities in N.C. (in English), retrieved 2025-06-22
  35. ↑ Howard University Makes History as First HBCU to Achieve Top Research Status (in American English), 2025-02-13, retrieved 2025-06-22
  36. ↑ "The Surge in African-American Enrollments in Advanced Placement Courses", The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, no. 47, p. 70, 2005-04-01, doi:10.2307/25073178, ISSN 1077-3711, retrieved 2025-06-22
  37. ↑ Enrollments Surge at HBCUS | Insight Into Academia (in American English), 2024-10-11, retrieved 2025-06-22
  38. ↑ HBCUs at a crossroads: Addressing the decline in Black male enrollment (in English), retrieved 2025-06-22
  39. ↑ Lesotho Economic Update: Transforming Fiscal Policy into an Engine of Inclusive Growth, 2025-04-08, doi:10.1596/43035, retrieved 2025-06-22
  40. ↑ Samuel P. Hernandez-Rivera (2014-07-09), Applications of Quantum Cascade Laser Scanners for Remote Detection of Chemical and Biological Threats and Weapons of Mass Destruction, Fort Belvoir, VA, retrieved 2025-06-22
  41. ↑ Pell Grant Statistics [2023]: How Many Receive per Year (in American English), retrieved 2025-06-22
  42. ↑ LEONARD S. MILLER (1981-01), "COLLEGE ADMISSIONS AND FINANCIAL AID POLICIES AS REVEALED BY INSTITUTIONAL PRACTICES", Economic Inquiry, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 117–131, doi:10.1111/j.1465-7295.1981.tb00606.x, ISSN 0095-2583, retrieved 2025-06-22 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  43. ↑ Scott Edelstein (1994), "43: Other Things You Don't Have to Pick", No Experience Necessary Writer's Course, Scarborough House, pp. 130–131, ISBN 978-1-4616-6044-6, retrieved 2025-06-22
  44. ↑ Sydney Hawkins, Alabama A&M University (2019-10-06), For the Culture: It's Time for HBCU Homecomings (in American English), retrieved 2025-06-22
  45. ↑ ABC News/Washington Post Government Shutdown Poll, November 1995, 1998-05-20, retrieved 2025-06-22
  46. ↑ "National Museum of African American History and Culture Plan for Action Presidential Commission Act (28 December 2001)", African American Studies Center, Oxford University Press, 2009-09-30, ISBN 978-0-19-530173-1, retrieved 2025-06-22
  47. ↑ Taiia Smart Young,Latricia Morgan, 3 HBCU Alums On What Makes Homecoming So Meaningful (in English), retrieved 2025-06-22
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