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Civil Rights Act of 1964

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The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Pub. L. 88 - 352, 78 Stat. 241, a wɔhyɛɛ no Kitawonsa bosome da ɛtɔ so 2 wɔ afe 1964) yɛ ɔmanfoɔ kyɛfa ne adwuma mmara a ɛwɔ United States a ɛbu nnipa mu nyiyim a ɛgyina mmusuo, kɔla, nyamesom, nna[1], ne ɔman a obi firi mu so[2]. Ɛbara wɔn a wɔmpɛ sɛ wɔde wɔn ho hyɛ abatow mu, wɔn a wɔtew wɔn ho fi mmusua afoforo ho wɔ sukuu ahorow mu, ne wɔn a wɔyɛ basabasa wɔ adwuma mu no. Mmara no "da so ara yɛ mmara mu nkonimdi a ɛsen biara wɔ Amerika abakɔsɛm mu"[3].

Mfitiaseɛ no, na tumi a wɔde ma sɛ wɔmfa mmara no nni dwuma no yɛ mmerɛ, nanso mfeɛ bi akyi no, wɔde bi kaa ho. Congress kyerɛeɛ sɛ ɔwɔ tumi sɛ ɔhyehyɛ mmara wɔ United States Amanyɔ Mmara no afa horow pii ase, titiriw tumi a ɔwɔ sɛ ɔhyehyɛ mmara wɔ aman ntam adwadi eho wɔ Adesua I, Ɔfa 8 no mu, ne asɛde sɛ ɔhyɛ ɔmanfo nyinaa bɔ a mmara no bɔ wɔn ho ban pɛpɛɛpɛ wɔ Nsakrae a Ɛto so 14 no mu, ne asɛde a ɔwɔ sɛ ɔbɔ abatoɔ ho ban wɔ Nsakrae a Ɛto so 15 no mu.

Ɔmampanyin John F. Kennedy wɔ June 1963 mu, nanso Senate no kasa tiaa no. Bere a wokum Kennedy wɔ November 22, 1963 no, Ɔmampanyin Lyndon B. Johnson hyɛɛ mmara no ho nkuran. United States House of Representatives gyee mmara no toom wɔ February 10, 1964, na bere a wɔde nnafua 72 twaa kwan no, United States Senate gyee toom wɔ Ayɛwohomumu da ɛtɔ so 19 wɔ afe 1964. Ntɔsoɔ a etwa to no yɛ 290 -130 wɔ Agyinatufo Asɔre no mu ne 73 -27 wɔ Agyinatufo Asɔre no mu[4]. Berɛ a Ɔman Badwa no penee Senate mmaransɛm no so wiei no, Ɔman Baabi a Ɛwɔ Ho Mmara a wɔhyɛɛ ase wɔ afe1964 no, Ɔmampanyin Johnson de ne nsa hyɛɛ ase sɛ mmara wɔ Ɔman Badwa no mu wɔ Kitawonsa da ɛtɔ so 2 wɔ afe 1964.Ɔmampanyin no mmara no dii kan kɔɔ Aban Mmarahyɛ Bagua no nkyɛn, faako a wɔde kɔmaa Atemmu Boayikuw a New York Democratni Emanuel Celler na odi wɔn anim no.

Ɛho asɛm

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Nhyehyɛeɛ foforɛ berɛ

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Wɔ afe 1883 mu no, United States Asɛnnibea Kunini no buu atɛn sɛ Congress nni tumi sɛ ɔbara nyiyim wɔ ankorɛankorɛ mu, na ɛno maa Civil Rights Act a wɔyɛɛ no afe 1875 no sɛee hokwan a na ɔwɔ sɛ ɔbɔ ɔmanfoɔ ho ban no[5].

Wɔ afeha a ɛto so 19 awiei ne afeha a ɛto so 20 mfiase mu no, mmara kwan so nnyinaso a wɔde gyee Civil Rights Act a wofii ase wɔ 1875 mu no yɛ su kɛse bi a United States Asɛnnibea Kunini no dodow no ara de yɛɛ adwuma de sɛee aban nhyehyɛe a ɛfa ankorankoro ho no fa, gye sɛ wɔde mmara a wɔde bɔɔ ɔmanfo abrabɔ ho ban.

Wɔ 1930 mfe no mu no, wɔ New Deal no mu no, Asɛnnibea Kunini no mu atemmufo dodow no ara de nkakrankakra sesaa wɔn mmara mu nkyerɛkyerɛ de maa aban no kwan ma wɔyɛɛ nnwuma a ɛfa ankorankoro ho no kɛse wɔ Adwumayɛ Mmara no ase, na saa kwan no maa aban no yɛɛ ɔmanfo hokwan ho mmara a ɛbaraa ɔmanfo ne ankorankoro mu nyiyim wɔ Adwumayɛ Mmara no mu.

Bere a "Black Cabinet" mpanimfoɔ ne March on Washington Movement no nyaa ne so nkɛntɛnso no, ansa na U.S. rebɛkɔ Wiase Ko II no, Ɔmampanyin Franklin Roosevelt de Executive Order 8802 mae, na ɛno ne mmara a edi kan a ɛko tia nyiyim, na ɔhyehyɛɛ Fair Employment Practices Committee[6]. Ɔmanpanin Harry Truman, a na odi Roosevelt ade no, paw Ɔmanpanin no Boayikuw a Ɛhwɛ Ɔmanfo Ahofadi Ho Nsɛm So, na ɔhyɛɛ afeha a ɛto so 20 no mu Mmara a edi kan a ɛfa Ɔmanfoɔ fahodie ho, na ɔhyɛɛ mmara 9980 ne 9981 a ɛhwɛ ma adwuma a ɛteɛ ne nnipa mu nyiyim ba wɔ aban no ne asraafo no mu[7].

Civil Rights Act of 1957 (Nnipa Ahofadi Mmara)

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Ɔmanfo Ahofadi Mmara a wɔhyɛɛ ase wɔ 1957 mu, a Ɔmampanin Dwight D. Eisenhower wɔ September 9, 1957 mu no, na ɛyɛ aban aban mmara a edi kan a ɛfa ɔmanfo fahodie ho fi berɛ a wɔpenee ɔmanfo ahofadi ho mmara wɔ 1875 mu no. Bere a Asɛnnibea Kunini no kae sɛ sukuu mu nyiyim tia mmara wɔ 1954 mu wɔ asɛm a ɛne Brown v. Board of Education, Southern Democrats fii ase yɛɛ ɔsatu de "sɔre tiae kɛse" tiaa nyiyim, na mpo aborɔfo akannifo kakraa bi a wɔdwene sɛ wɔyɛ pɛsɛmenkominya no sesae kɔɔ nnipa mu nyiyim so pefee[8][9]. Akwan bi so a na Eisenhower rebɔ mmɔden sɛ ɔbɛma nnipa a wɔhwehwɛ sɛ wɔyɛ nsakrae a ɛkɔ akyiri aka wɔn adwene no, ɔhyɛɛ mmara bi a ɛbɔ ɔmanfoɔ fahodie ho ban a ɛbɛma wɔanya fahodie akɔ abatoɔ mu ama Afrikafo Amerikafoɔ[10].

Ɛmfa ho sɛ na wɔn nkɛntɛnsoɔ wɔ African-American voter participation so yɛ kakraa bi, bere a black voter registration fi 0% (wɔ amantam 11 mu) kosii 5% (wɔ amantam 97) ɛmfa ho sɛ na wɔn mu dodow no ara yɛ abibifo[3], Civil Rights Act of 1957 no de United States Commission on Civil Rights ne United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division sii hɔ. Ɛduruu afe 1960 no, na wɔn a wɔyɛ abibifo a wɔtow aba no ayɛ 3%[11], na Congress gyee Civil Rights Act of 1960 no, na eyi maa 1957 Act no mu nsɛm bi a na enni mu no baa mu.

Akwankyerɛ

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Wiase mu nsɛm ho amanneɛbɔfoɔ nso dii dwuma kɛseɛ wɔ Kennedy ne Johnson nniso no nyinaa mu, na ɛmaa 1964 Civil Rights Act no baa mu. Esiane sɛ wiase nyinaa ani gyee nsɛm a wɔkaa wɔ TV so a ɛfa nnipa ahofadi ho a wɔkaa ho asɛm wɔ TV so te sɛ 1957 Little Rock Ɔhaw no, na wɔkasa tiaa 1954 Brown vs Board of Education gyinabea a United States Asɛnnibea Kunini no gyinabea a ɛbaraa ɔmanfo sukuu mu nyiyim, ne 1963 Birmingham ɔsatu no ho a wɔto hyɛɛ wɔn so no nti, aban no de nhyɛso kɛse too aban no so sɛ wɔmfa mmara mu nsakrae a emu yɛ den mmra[12].

1963 Kennedy ɔmanfo hokwan ahorow ho mmara

Wɔ nkonim a odii wɔ 1960 United States ɔmampanyin abatow mu no, Kennedy gyee Afrika Amerikafo abatow no mu 70%.[13] Nanso esiane ne nkonimdi ketewaa ne Democratfo dodow a ɛyɛ ketewaa wɔ Mmarahyɛ Bagua no mu nti, ɔhwɛɛ yiye sɛ ɔbɛpiapia ɔmanfo hokwan ahorow ho mmara denneennen esiane sɛ na osuro sɛ ɔbɛhwere anafo fam mmoa nti.Bio nso, sɛnea Miller Center kyerɛ no, na ɔpɛ sɛ ɔtwɛn kosi n’ahenni bere a ɛto so abien no na ɔde ɔmanfo hokwan ahorow ho mmara kɔma Mmarahyɛ Bagua no. Nanso esiane sɛ mmusuakuw ntam ntawntawdi kɔɔ soro na Afrikafo ne Amerikafo sɔre tiae wɔ 1963 ahohuru bere mu te sɛ Birmingham ɔsatu no nti, Kennedy hui sɛ ɛsɛ sɛ ɔyɛ ade wɔ ɔmanfo hokwan ahorow ho.[14][15]

Kennedy dii kan de 1964 mmara no ho nyansahyɛ mae wɔ ne Report to the American People on Civil Rights mu wɔ June 11, 1963 mu[16].Ɔhwehwɛɛ mmara "a ɛbɛma Amerikafoɔ nyinaa anya hokwan sɛ wɔsom wɔn wɔ mmeaeɛ a wɔabue ama ɔmanfoɔ – ahɔhodan, adidibea, agoprama, aguadidan, ne mmeaeɛ a ɛte saa" – ne "ahobammɔ kɛseɛ ma hokwan a wɔwɔ sɛ wɔto aba".Wɔ July awiei no, Walter Reuther, United Auto Workers titrani no bɔɔ kɔkɔ sɛ sɛ Mmarahyɛ Bagua no antumi annye Kennedy ɔmanfo hokwan ahorow ho mmara no antom a, ɔman no behyia ɔmanko foforo.[17]

Bere a Kennedy suasua Ɔmanfo Hokwan Mmara a wɔyɛe wɔ 1875 mu a na Asɛnnibea Kunini no asɛe no wɔ 1883 mu no, na nhyehyɛe ahorow a ɛbɛma wɔabara nyiyim wɔ ɔmanfo dabere mu na ama U.S. Mmaranimfo Panyin no atumi akɔka mmara mu nsɛm a wɔde kɔdan aman nniso ahorow a wɔde sukuu nhyehyɛe ahorow a wɔatew wɔn ho di dwuma no ho, ne nhyehyɛe afoforo.Nanso na ɛnyɛ nhyehyɛe ahorow bi a ɔmanfo hokwan ahorow ho akannifo buu no sɛ ɛho hia, a nea ɛka ho ne ahobammɔ a wɔde bɛma wɔ polisifo atirimɔdensɛm ho, nyiyim a wɔbɛma aba awiei wɔ ankorankoro adwumayɛ mu, ne tumi a wɔde bɛma Atemmu Dwumadibea no sɛ wɔmfa mmara mu nsɛm a ɛfa mpaapaemu a wɔayi afi nnipa mu anaa adwuma mu nyiyim ho ase.[18]

Mmarahyɛ bagua ho abakɔsɛm

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Aban Asoɛe a Ɛhwɛ Aban Asoɛe So

Wɔ June 11, 1963 mu no, Ɔmampanyin Kennedy ne Republican akannifo hyiaam susuw mmara no ho ansa na ɔrekasa akyerɛ ɔman no wɔ television so saa anwummere no.Nna abien akyi no, Mmarahyɛ Bagua no mufo Kakraafo Kannifo Everett Dirksen ne Mmarahyɛ Bagua no mufo dodow no ara Kannifo Mike Mansfield nyinaa kaa sɛ wɔtaa ɔmampanyin no mmara no akyi, gye nhyehyɛe ahorow a ɛma wotumi kɔ mmeae a ɔmanfo dabere no pɛpɛɛpɛ.Eyi maa Republican Ananmusifo pii kyerɛw mmara bi a ɛbɛma wɔatumi asusuw ho. Wɔ June 19 no, ɔmampanyin no de ne mmara no kɔmaa Congress sɛnea wɔkyerɛwee mfiase no, na ɔkae sɛ mmarahyɛ bagua adeyɛ yɛ "ɛho hia".[19][20] Ɔmampanyin no mmara no dii kan kɔɔ Aban Mmarahyɛ Bagua no nkyɛn, faako a wɔde kɔmaa Atemmu Boayikuw a New York Democratni Emanuel Celler na odi wɔn anim no.Bere a wotiee mmara no ho asɛm mpɛn pii akyi no, Celler boayikuw no hyɛɛ mmara no mu den, de nhyehyɛe ahorow kaa ho de baraa mmusua mu nyiyim wɔ adwumayɛ mu, de ahobammɔ kɛse bɛma abibifo a wɔtow aba, ayi mpaapaemu afi hɔ wɔ mmeae a ɔmanfo wɔ nyinaa (ɛnyɛ sukuu ahorow nkutoo), na wɔhyɛɛ nsɛm a ɛko tia mpaapaemu a ɛfa ɔmanfo mmeae te sɛ awia aduan a wɔtɔn ho no mu den.Wɔde tumi krataa nso kaa ho sɛ Mmaranimfo Panyin no mfa nkɔdan mmaranimfo mfa mmɔ ankorankoro ho ban na wɔamfa hokwan biara a Ɔman Mmara anaa U.S. mmara abɔ ho ban no mfi wɔn nsam.Ne titiriw no, na eyi ne "Title III" a akyinnyegye wom a wɔayi afi 1957 Mmara ne 1960 Mmara no mu no.Ahyehyɛde ahorow a ɛhwɛ ɔmanfo hokwan ahorow so piapiaa saa nhyehyɛe yi denneennen efisɛ na wobetumi de abɔ wɔn a wɔyɛ ɔsɔretia wɔ asomdwoe mu ne abibifo a wɔtow aba no ho ban afi polisifo atirimɔdensɛm ne kasa mu ahofadi hokwan ahorow a wosiw ano no ho.[18]

Mmɔden a wɔbɔ sɛ wɔbɛhwehwɛ nkurɔfo hɔ sika

Akannifo Nhyiam a ɛhwɛ Ɔmanfo Hokwan Ho Mmara no so, a ɛyɛ ahofadi ne adwumayɛfo ahyehyɛde ahorow 70 a wɔaka abom na ɛyɛɛ mmoa a wɔde hwehwɛɛ ɔmanfo Hokwan Mmara no ho nhyehyɛe.Wɔn a wɔhwehwɛɛ Akannifo Nhyiam no mu titiriw ne ɔmanfo hokwan ho mmaranimfo Joseph L. Rauh Kumaa ne Clarence Mitchell Kumaa a wɔwɔ NAACP.[21].[22] Wɔ March on Washington de hwehwɛɛ Nnwuma ne Ahofadi akyi no, wɔ August 28, 1963 mu no, nhyehyɛefo no kɔsraa Kennedy kɔkaa ɔmanfo hokwan ahorow ho mmara no ho asɛm.Roy Wilkins, A. Philip Randolph, ne Walter Reuther bɔɔ mmɔden sɛ wɔbɛma no aboa nhyehyɛe bi a ɛde Adwumayɛ Nneyɛe a Ɛfata Bagua a ɛbɛbara nyiyim nneyɛe a aban mpanyimfo, nnwumakuw, ne ankorankoro nnwumakuw nyinaa yɛ no akyi.[22] Kennedy frɛɛ mmarahyɛ bagua akannifo no kɔɔ White House wɔ October 1963 awiei sɛ wɔnkɔhyehyɛ abatow a ɛho hia wɔ Aban no mu na wɔapene so.Wɔbɔɔ mmara no ho amanneɛ fii Atemmu Boayikuw no mu wɔ November 1963 mu na wɔde kɔmaa Mmara Boayikuw no, a ne guamtrani, Howard W. Smith, Democratni ne mpaapaemufo a ɔyɛ katee a ofi Virginia, kyerɛe sɛ n’adwene ne sɛ ɔbɛma mmara no akɔto toa mu daa.

Johnson adesrɛ a ɔde kɔmaa Mmarahyɛ Bagua no

U.S. Ɔmampanyin John F. Kennedy a wokum no November 22, 1963 no sesaa amammui tebea no.Lyndon B. Johnson a odii Kennedy ade sɛ ɔmampanyin no de osuahu a onyae wɔ mmarahyɛ bagua amammuisɛm mu, ne asɛnka agua a asisifo a ɔde dii dwuma sɛ ɔmampanyin no dii dwuma de foaa mmara no so. Wɔ ne kasa a edi kan a ɔka kyerɛɛ Mmarahyɛ Bagua no nhyiam a wɔbom yɛe wɔ November 27, 1963 mu no, Johnson ka kyerɛɛ mmarahyɛ baguafo no sɛ, "Nkae kasa anaa ayeyi biara nni hɔ a ebetumi ahyɛ Ɔmampanyin Kennedy nkae anuonyam wɔ ɔkwan a ɛyɛ dɛ so sen ɔmanfo hokwan ho mmara a ɔko maa no bere tenten saa a wɔpenee so ntɛm ara no."[23]

Atemmu Boayikuw no guamtrani Celler de adesrɛ kɔe sɛ wɔmfa mmara no mfi Mmara Boayikuw no hɔ;[1] na ɛhwehwɛ sɛ Aban no mufo dodow no ara boa na wɔde mmara no akɔ fam. Mfiase no, na ɛyɛ den ma Celler sɛ obenya nsaano nkyerɛwee a ɛho hia, na Ananmusifo pii a wɔboaa ɔmanfo hokwan ahorow ho mmara no ankasa kɔɔ so yɛɛ ahwɛyiye wɔ Aban no nhyehyɛe a wɔtaa bu so denam adesrɛ krataa a wɔde gyae adwuma a wɔntaa mfa nni dwuma no ho.Eduu 1963 awɔw bere mu ahomegye bere no, na nnipa 50 da so ara hia sɛ wɔde wɔn nsa bɛhyɛ ase.

Nanso, bere a Mmarahyɛ Bagua no san fii n’awɔw bere mu ahomegye bere mu no, na ɛda adi sɛ ɔmanfo adwene a ɛwɔ Atifi fam no pene mmara no so na adesrɛ krataa no benya nsaano nkyerɛwee a ɛho hia.Nea ɛbɛyɛ na wɔasiw animguase a ɛbae wɔ adesrɛ a wɔde too gua a edii nkonim mu no ano no, Oguamtrani Smith gyaee ne ho na ɔmaa kwan ma wɔde mmara no faa Mmara Boayikuw no mu[24]

Passage wɔ Mmarahyɛ Bagua no mu

Johnson a na ɔpɛ sɛ wɔpene mmara no so ntɛm ara no hwɛ hui sɛ Mmarahyɛ Bagua no besusuw ho ntɛm.Mpɛn pii no, anka wɔde mmara no bɛkɔ Mmarahyɛ Bagua no Atemmu Boayikuw a James O. Eastland, Democratni a ofi Mississippi na odi wɔn anim, a ne sɔretia a emu yɛ den no maa ɛyɛɛ te sɛ nea ɛrentumi nyɛ yiye sɛ mmara no bedu Mmarahyɛ Bagua no ase no.Mmarahyɛ Bagua no mufo dodow no ara Kannifo Mike Mansfield faa ɔkwan foforo bi so de siw Atemmu Boayikuw no kwan sɛ wɔremma mmara no nkɔ so: mfiase no ogyaee akenkan a ɛto so abien wɔ akenkan a edi kan no akyi pɛɛ, a anka ɛde bɛkɔ Atemmu Boayikuw no nkyɛn, na ɔfaa anammɔn a ebi mmae da a ɛne sɛ ɔbɛmaa mmara no akenkan a ɛto so abien wɔ February 26, 1964, na ɔnam saayɛ so twaa Atemmu Boayikuw no so, na ɔde kɔmaa kɔɔ Mmarahyɛ Bagua no fam ma wogye ho akyinnye ntɛm ara.

Bere a mmara no baa Mmarahyɛ Bagua mũ no nyinaa anim sɛ wɔregye ho akyinnye wɔ March 30, 1964 mu no, "Southern Bloc" a ɛwɔ kesee fam Democratic Mmarahyɛ Bagua no mufo 18 ne Republican John Tower a ɔyɛ ɔbaakofo a ofi Texas a Richard Russell (D-GA) di wɔn anim no fii ase yɛɛ filibuster de siw ne kwan so.[25] Russell bɔɔ dawuru sɛ, "Yɛbɛko atia adeyɛ biara anaa kankabi biara a ɛbɛpɛ sɛ ɛde asetra mu pɛyɛ ne mmusuakuw a wɔbɛfrafra na wɔaka abom aba wɔ yɛn [Kesee Fam] aman mu no akosi awiei a ɛyɛ yaw."[26][27]

Ɔsɔretia a emu yɛ den a wɔde tiaa mmara no nso fi Mmarahyɛ Bagua no muni Strom Thurmond a na ɔda so ara yɛ Democratni saa bere no hɔ:"Saa nea wɔfrɛ no Ɔmanfo Hokwan Ho Nsusuwii [sic] a Ɔmampanyin no de akɔ Capitol Hill sɛ wɔmfa nyɛ mmara no nhyia, ɛho nhia, nyansa nnim na ɛtrɛw kɔ akyiri sen ntease ahemman."Eyi ne ɔmanfo hokwan ahorow a enye koraa a wɔde ama Mmarahyɛ Bagua no pɛn na ɛma yɛkae Ɔdansi ho nyansahyɛ ahorow ne nneyɛe a Republican Mmarahyɛ Bagua a wɔyɛ katee no yɛe no."[28]

Bere a filibuster no kɔɔ so nnafua 54 akyi no, Mmarahyɛ Bagua no muni Mansfield, Hubert Humphrey, Everett Dirksen, ne Thomas Kuchel de mmara bi a wɔde besi ananmu bae a na wɔwɔ anidaso sɛ ebetumi adi so nkonim denam Republicanfo dodow a ɛdɔɔso ne Democratfo atitiriw a wɔpɛ ahofadi a wɔbɛka abom so.Na apam ho mmara no yɛ mmerɛw sen Aban no de no wɔ tumi a aban no wɔ wɔ ankorankoro nnwuma a wɔyɛ ho nhyehyɛe mu no ho, nanso na ɛnyɛ mmerɛw a ɛbɛma Aban no asan asusuw ho.[29]

Mmarahyɛ Bagua no muni Robert Byrd de ne filibuster no baa awiei de sɔre tiaa mmara no wɔ June 10, 1964 anɔpa, wɔ nnɔnhwerew 14 ne simma 13 akyi. Ɛde besi saa bere no, na adeyɛ no agye Mmarahyɛ Bagua no adwuma nnafua 60, a Kwasida asia ka ho.Da a edii ɛno anim no, Humphrey a ɔyɛ mmara no sohwɛfo no de baa awiei sɛ ɔwɔ abatow 67 a na wɔhwehwɛ saa bere no na ama watumi de akyinnyegye no ne asɛm a wɔka no aba awiei no aba awiei.Esiane sɛ mmarahyɛ baguafo baanum a wɔrehinhim de nkonimdi a wɔde abatow anan mae nti, dodow a etwa to no gyinaa 71 kosi 29.Wɔ n’abakɔsɛm nyinaa mu no, Mmarahyɛ Bagua no ntumi nnyaa abatow a ɛdɔɔso a ɛbɛma wɔadi obi a ɔbɔɔ ɔmanfo hokwan ahorow ho mmara bi so nkonim da, na pɛnkoro pɛ wɔ mfe 37 a efi 1927 no mu na wɔpenee so sɛ wɔbɛtow aba wɔ ɔkwan biara so.[30]

Bere a ɛyɛ nwonwa sen biara wɔ cloture vote no mu bae bere a wɔde Senator Clair Engle (D-CA) wheel kɔɔ dan no mu no.Esiane sɛ na ɔwɔ amemene mu kokoram a ɛyɛ hu, na ontumi nkasa nti, ɔde ne nsa kyerɛɛ n'ani benkum so, na ɛkyerɛɛ ne abatow a ɛkyerɛ sɛ "Aye" bere a wɔfrɛɛ ne din no.[1] Owui wɔ adapɛn ason akyi.

Nkyekyem a etwa to

Wɔ June 19 no, wɔde abatoɔ 73–27 twaa Mmarahyɛ Bagua no mu, na ɛfaa nhyiamu boayikuo no so ntɛmntɛm, a wɔgyee Mmara no fa a ɛfa Mmarahyɛ Bagua no toom, afei Mmarahyɛ Bagua no afie mmienu no nyinaa gye toom na Johnson de ne nsa hyɛɛ aseɛ sɛ mmara wɔ July 2, 1964[31]

Mmeaeɛ a menyaa mmoa firiiɛ

[sesa]
  1. ↑ ",,,Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Discrimination Claims Under the Fair Housing Act After Bostock v. Clayton County", Kansas Law Review, 2021, doi:10.17161/1808.31570, ISSN 0083-4025, retrieved 2025-06-19
  2. ↑ "Civil Rights Act (1964)", African American Studies Center, Oxford University Press, 2009-09-30, ISBN 978-0-19-530173-1, retrieved 2025-06-19
  3. 1 2 Francis R. Valeo (2020-01-29), "A New Senate Approach to Civil Rights Legislation", Mike Mansfield, Majority Leader, Routledge, pp. 92–136, ISBN 978-1-315-70240-7, retrieved 2025-06-19
  4. ↑ HR. 7152. PASSAGE. -- Senate Vote #409 -- June 19, 1964 (in English), archived from the original on 2020-12-06, retrieved 2025-06-19
  5. ↑ U.S. Reports: Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883)., retrieved 2025-06-19
  6. ↑ FDR on racial discrimination, 1942 | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, retrieved 2025-06-19
  7. ↑ "Executive Order 9981: Desegregation of the Armed Forces", Milestone Documents in American History, Schlager Group Inc., 2020-10-01, ISBN 978-1-935306-52-8, retrieved 2025-06-19
  8. ↑ Michael J . Klarman (2004-02-05), From Jim Crow To Civil Rights, Oxford University PressNew York, NY, ISBN 978-0-19-512903-8, retrieved 2025-06-19
  9. ↑ Waldo L. Schmitt (1933), Hancock Pacific-Galapagos Expedition, 1934 : diary, December 24, 1933 - March 10, 1934, original, volume 1, [s.n.], retrieved 2025-06-19
  10. ↑ Chester J. Pach, Elmo Richardson (1991), The presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower, American presidency series (Rev. ed ed.), Lawrence, Kan: Univ. Press of Kansas, ISBN 978-0-7006-0437-1 {{citation}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |edition= has extra text (help)
  11. ↑ "Boston of Faversham, Baron, (Terence George Boston) (21 March 1930–23 July 2011)", Who Was Who, Oxford University Press, 2007-12-01, retrieved 2025-06-19
  12. ↑ Mary L. Dudziak (2004-06-01), "Brown as a Cold War Case", Journal of American History (in English), vol. 91, no. 1, p. 32, doi:10.2307/3659611, retrieved 2025-06-19
  13. ↑
  14. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964#cite_note-19
  15. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964#cite_note-20
  16. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964#cite_note-21
  17. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964#cite_note-22
  18. 1 2 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964#cite_note-CivilRightsMovementArchiveFeb1964-23
  19. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964#cite_note-24
  20. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964#cite_note-25
  21. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20170629031854/http://civilrights.org/history-leadership-conference-civil-human-rights-leadership-conference-education-fund/
  22. 1 2 https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/civil-rights-act/civil-rights-era.html
  23. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20200429132839/https://www.upi.com/Archives/Audio/Events-of-1963/Transition-to-Johnson
  24. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20200521120444/https://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis64.htm#1964cra64h
  25. ↑ Archive copy, archived from the original on 2020-07-29, retrieved 2025-07-31{{citation}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  26. ↑ https://archive.org/details/dredscottsreveng0000napo/page/188/mode/1up?q=%22we+will+resist%22
  27. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20160224154315/http://www.latimes.com/nation/la-oe-civil-rights-quotes-20140629-story,amp.html
  28. ↑ http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1963/Civil-Rights-Bill/12295509434394-8/
  29. ↑ http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis64.htm#1964cra64s
  30. ↑ https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Civil_Rights_Filibuster_Ended.htm
  31. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Dallek
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